--- /dev/null
+\chapter{CvReference}
+\section{Image Processing}
+
+
+Note: The chapter describes functions for image processing and
+analysis. Most of the functions work with 2d arrays of pixels, which are referred
+to as "images". However, they do not have to be of type
+\cross{IplImage}, they can be of type \cross{CvMat} or type \cross{CvMatND} as well.
+
+\subsection{Gradients, Edges and Corners}
+
+\cvfunc{Sobel}\label{Sobel}
+\label{Sobel}
+Calculates the first, second, third or mixed image derivatives using an extended Sobel operator.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvSobel(
+
+const CvArr* src,
+
+CvArr* dst,
+
+int xorder,
+
+int yorder,
+
+int aperture\_size=3 );
+
+}{CPP}{Sobel(src,dst,xorder,yorder,aperture\_size = 3)-> None}
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{src}{Source image of type CvArr*}
+\cvarg{dst}{Destination image}
+\cvarg{xorder}{Order of the derivative x}
+\cvarg{yorder}{Order of the derivative y}
+\cvarg{aperture\_size}{Size of the extended Sobel kernel, must be 1, 3, 5 or 7}
+\end{description}
+
+In all cases except 1, an $\texttt{aperture\_size} \times
+\texttt{aperture\_size}$ separable kernel will be used to calculate the
+derivative. For $\texttt{aperture\_size} = 1$ $ 3 \times 1$ or $ 1 \times 3$
+a kernel is used (Gaussian smoothing is not done). There is also the special
+value \texttt{CV\_SCHARR} (-1) that corresponds to a $3\times3$ Scharr
+filter that may give more accurate results than a $3\times3$ Sobel. Scharr
+aperture is
+
+\[ \vecthreethree
+{-3}{0}{3}
+{-10}{0}{10}
+{-3}{0}{3}
+\]
+
+for the x-derivative or transposed for the y-derivative.
+
+The function \texttt{cvSobel} calculates the image derivative by convolving the image with the appropriate kernel:
+
+\[
+\texttt{dst}(x,y) = \frac{d^{xorder+yorder} \texttt{src}}{dx^{xorder} \cdot dy^{yorder}}
+\]
+
+The Sobel operators combine Gaussian smoothing and differentiation
+so the result is more or less resistant to the noise. Most often,
+the function is called with (\texttt{xorder} = 1, \texttt{yorder} = 0,
+\texttt{aperture\_size} = 3) or (\texttt{xorder} = 0, \texttt{yorder} = 1,
+\texttt{aperture\_size} = 3) to calculate the first x- or y- image
+derivative. The first case corresponds to a kernel of:
+
+\[ \vecthreethree
+{-1}{0}{1}
+{-2}{0}{2}
+{-1}{0}{1}
+\]
+
+and the second one corresponds to a kernel of:
+\[ \vecthreethree
+{-1}{-2}{-1}
+{0}{0}{0}
+{1}{2}{1}
+\]
+or a kernel of:
+\[ \vecthreethree
+{1}{2}{1}
+{0}{0}{0}
+{-1}{2}{-1}
+\]
+
+depending on the image origin (\texttt{origin} field of
+\texttt{IplImage} structure). No scaling is done, so the destination image
+usually has larger numbers (in absolute values) than the source image does. To
+avoid overflow, the function requires a 16-bit destination image if the
+source image is 8-bit. The result can be converted back to 8-bit using the
+\cross{ConvertScale} or the \cross{ConvertScaleAbs} function. Besides 8-bit images
+the function can process 32-bit floating-point images. Both the source and the
+destination must be single-channel images of equal size or equal ROI size.
+
+\cvfunc{Laplace}\label{Laplace}
+\label{Laplace}
+Calculates the Laplacian of an image.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvLaplace(
+
+const CvArr* src,
+
+CvArr* dst,
+
+int aperture\_size=3 );
+
+}{CPP}{Laplace(src,dst,aperture\_size=3)-> None}
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{src}{Source image}
+\cvarg{dst}{Destination image}
+\cvarg{aperture\_size}{Aperture size (it has the same meaning as \cross{Sobel})}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvLaplace} calculates the Laplacian of the source image by adding up the second x and y derivatives calculated using the Sobel operator:
+
+\[
+\texttt{dst}(x,y) = \frac{d^2 \texttt{src}}{dx^2} + \frac{d^2 \texttt{src}}{dy^2}
+\]
+
+Setting \texttt{aperture\_size} = 1 gives the fastest variant that is equal to convolving the image with the following kernel:
+
+\[ \vecthreethree {0}{1}{0}{1}{-4}{1}{0}{1}{0} \]
+
+Similar to the \cross{Sobel} function, no scaling is done and the same combinations of input and output formats are supported.
+
+\cvfunc{Canny}\label{Canny}
+Implements the Canny algorithm for edge detection.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvCanny( const CvArr* image,
+
+CvArr* edges,
+
+double threshold1,
+
+double threshold2,
+
+int aperture\_size=3 );
+
+}{CPP}{Canny(image,edges,threshold1,threshold2,aperture\_size=3)-> None}
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{image}{Single-channel input image}
+\cvarg{edges}{Single-channel image to store the edges found by the function}
+\cvarg{threshold1}{The first threshold}
+\cvarg{threshold2}{The second threshold}
+\cvarg{aperture\_size}{Aperture parameter for the Sobel operator (see \cross{Sobel})}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvCanny} finds the edges on the input image \texttt{image} and marks them in the output image \texttt{edges} using the Canny algorithm. The smallest value between \texttt{threshold1} and \texttt{threshold2} is used for edge linking, the largest value is used to find the initial segments of strong edges.
+
+\cvfunc{PreCornerDetect}\label{PreCornerDetect}
+Calculates the feature map for corner detection.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvPreCornerDetect(
+
+const CvArr* image,
+
+CvArr* corners,
+
+int aperture\_size=3 );
+
+}{CPP}{PreCornerDetect(image,corners,aperture\_size=3)-> None}
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{image}{Input image}
+\cvarg{corners}{Image to store the corner candidates}
+\cvarg{aperture\_size}{Aperture parameter for the Sobel operator (see \cross{Sobel})}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvPreCornerDetect} calculates the function
+
+\[
+D_x^2 D_{yy} + D_y^2 D_{xx} - 2 D_x D_y D_{xy}
+\]
+
+where $D_?$ denotes one of the first image derivatives and $D_{??}$ denotes a second image derivative.
+
+The corners can be found as local maximums of the function below:
+
+\begin{lstlisting}
+// assume that the image is floating-point
+IplImage* corners = cvCloneImage(image);
+IplImage* dilated_corners = cvCloneImage(image);
+IplImage* corner_mask = cvCreateImage( cvGetSize(image), 8, 1 );
+cvPreCornerDetect( image, corners, 3 );
+cvDilate( corners, dilated_corners, 0, 1 );
+cvSubS( corners, dilated_corners, corners );
+cvCmpS( corners, 0, corner_mask, CV_CMP_GE );
+cvReleaseImage( &corners );
+cvReleaseImage( &dilated_corners );
+\end{lstlisting}
+
+\cvfunc{CornerEigenValsAndVecs}\label{CornerEigenValsAndVecs}
+Calculates eigenvalues and eigenvectors of image blocks for corner detection.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvCornerEigenValsAndVecs( \par const CvArr* image,\par CvArr* eigenvv,\par int block\_size,\par int aperture\_size=3 );
+
+}{CPP}{CornerEigenValsAndVecs(image,eigenvv,block\_size,aperture\_size=3)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{image}{Input image}
+\cvarg{eigenvv}{Image to store the results. It must be 6 times wider than the input image}
+\cvarg{block\_size}{Neighborhood size (see discussion)}
+\cvarg{aperture\_size}{Aperture parameter for the Sobel operator (see \cross{Sobel})}
+\end{description}
+
+For every pixel, the function \texttt{cvCornerEigenValsAndVecs} considers a \texttt{block\_size} $\times$ \texttt{block\_size} neigborhood S(p). It calcualtes the covariation matrix of derivatives over the neigborhood as:
+
+\[
+M = \begin{bmatrix}
+\sum_{S(p)}(dI/dx)^2 & \sum_{S(p)}(dI/dx \cdot dI/dy)^2 \\
+\sum_{S(p)}(dI/dx \cdot dI/dy)^2 & \sum_{S(p)}(dI/dy)^2
+\end{bmatrix}
+\]
+
+After that it finds eigenvectors and eigenvalues of the matrix and stores them into destination image in form
+$(\lambda_1, \lambda_2, x_1, y_1, x_2, y_2)$ where
+\begin{description}
+\item[$\lambda_1, \lambda_2$]are the eigenvalues of $M$; not sorted
+\item[$x_1, y_1$]are the eigenvectors corresponding to $\lambda_1$
+\item[$x_2, y_2$]are the eigenvectors corresponding to $\lambda_2$
+\end{description}
+
+\cvfunc{CornerMinEigenVal}\label{CornerMinEigenVal}
+Calculates the minimal eigenvalue of gradient matrices for corner detection.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvCornerMinEigenVal(
+
+const CvArr* image,
+
+CvArr* eigenval,
+
+int block\_size,
+
+int aperture\_size=3 );
+
+}{CPP}{CornerMinEigenVal(image,eigenval,block\_size,aperture\_size=3)-> None}
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{image}{Input image}
+\cvarg{eigenval}{Image to store the minimal eigenvalues. Should have the same size as \texttt{image}}
+\cvarg{block\_size}{Neighborhood size (see the discussion of \cross{CornerEigenValsAndVecs})}
+\cvarg{aperture\_size}{Aperture parameter for the Sobel operator (see \cross{Sobel}).}
+% format. In the case of floating-point input format this parameter is the number of the fixed float filter used for differencing
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvCornerMinEigenVal} is similar to \cross{CornerEigenValsAndVecs} but it calculates and stores only the minimal eigen value of derivative covariation matrix for every pixel, i.e. $min(\lambda_1, \lambda_2)$ in terms of the previous function.
+
+\cvfunc{CornerHarris}\label{CornerHarris}
+Harris edge detector.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvCornerHarris(
+
+const CvArr* image,
+
+CvArr* harris\_responce,
+
+int block\_size,
+
+int aperture\_size=3,
+
+double k=0.04 );
+
+}{CPP}{CornerHarris(image,harris\_dst,block\_size,aperture\_size=3,k=0.04)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{image}{Input image}
+\cvarg{harris\_responce}{Image to store the Harris detector responses. Should have the same size as \texttt{image}}
+\cvarg{block\_size}{Neighborhood size (see the discussion of \cross{CornerEigenValsAndVecs})}
+\cvarg{aperture\_size}{Aperture parameter for the Sobel operator (see \cross{Sobel}).}
+% format. In the case of floating-point input format this parameter is the number of the fixed float filter used for differencing
+\cvarg{k}{Harris detector free parameter. See the formula below}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvCornerHarris} runs the Harris edge detector on the image. Similarly to \cross{CornerMinEigenVal} and \cross{CornerEigenValsAndVecs}, for each pixel it calculates a $2\times2$ gradient covariation matrix $M$ over a $\texttt{block\_size} \times \texttt{block\_size}$ neighborhood. Then, it stores
+
+\[
+det(M) - k \, trace(M)^2
+\]
+
+to the destination image. Corners in the image can be found as the local maxima of the destination image.
+
+\cvfunc{FindCornerSubPix}\label{FindCornerSubPix}
+Refines the corner locations.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvFindCornerSubPix(
+
+const CvArr* image,
+
+CvPoint2D32f* corners,
+
+int count,
+
+CvSize win,
+
+CvSize zero\_zone,
+
+CvTermCriteria criteria );
+}{CPP}{FindCornerSubPix(image,win,zero\_zone,criteria)-> corners}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{image}{Input image}
+\cvarg{corners}{Initial coordinates of the input corners; refined coordinates on output}
+\cvarg{count}{Number of corners}
+\cvarg{win}{Half of the side length of the search window. For example, if \texttt{win} =(5,5), then a 5*2+1 $\times$ 5*2+1 = 11 $\times$ 11 search window would be used}
+\cvarg{zero\_zone}{Half of the size of the dead region in the middle of the search zone over which the summation in the formula below is not done. It is used sometimes to avoid possible singularities of the autocorrelation matrix. The value of (-1,-1) indicates that there is no such size}
+\cvarg{criteria}{Criteria for termination of the iterative process of corner refinement. That is, the process of corner position refinement stops either after a certain number of iterations or when a required accuracy is achieved. The \texttt{criteria} may specify either of or both the maximum number of iteration and the required accuracy}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvFindCornerSubPix} iterates to find the sub-pixel accurate location of corners, or radial saddle points, as shown in on the picture below.
+
+\includegraphics[width=1.0\textwidth]{pics/cornersubpix.png}
+
+Sub-pixel accurate corner locator is based on the observation that every vector from the center $q$ to a point $p$ located within a neighborhood of $q$ is orthogonal to the image gradient at $p$ subject to image and measurement noise. Consider the expression:
+
+\[
+\epsilon_i = {DI_{p_i}}^T \cdot (q - p_i)
+\]
+
+where ${DI_{p_i}}$ is the image gradient at the one of the points $p_i$ in a neighborhood of $q$. The value of $q$ is to be found such that $\epsilon_i$ is minimized. A system of equations may be set up with $\epsilon_i$ set to zero:
+
+\[
+\sum_i(DI_{p_i} \cdot {DI_{p_i}}^T) - \sum_i(DI_{p_i} \cdot {DI_{p_i}}^T \cdot p_i)
+\]
+
+where the gradients are summed within a neighborhood ("search window") of $q$. Calling the first gradient term $G$ and the second gradient term $b$ gives:
+
+\[
+q = G^{-1} \cdot b
+\]
+
+The algorithm sets the center of the neighborhood window at this new center $q$ and then iterates until the center keeps within a set threshold.
+
+\cvfunc{GoodFeaturesToTrack}\label{GoodFeaturesToTrack}
+Determines strong corners on an image.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvGoodFeaturesToTrack(
+
+const CvArr* image
+
+CvArr* eig\_image, CvArr* temp\_image
+
+CvPoint2D32f* corners
+
+int* corner\_count
+
+double quality\_level
+
+double min\_distance
+
+const CvArr* mask=NULL
+
+int block\_size=3
+
+int use\_harris=0
+
+double k=0.04 );
+
+}{CPP}{GoodFeaturesToTrack(image,eig\_image,temp\_image,quality\_level,min\_distance,mask=NULL,block\_size=3,use\_harris=0,k=0.04)-> corners}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{image}{The source 8-bit or floating-point 32-bit, single-channel image}
+\cvarg{eig\_image}{Temporary floating-point 32-bit image, the same size as \texttt{image}}
+\cvarg{temp\_image}{Another temporary image, the same size and format as \texttt{eig\_image}}
+\cvarg{corners}{Output parameter; detected corners}
+\cvarg{corner\_count}{Output parameter; number of detected corners}
+\cvarg{quality\_level}{Multiplier for the max/min eigenvalue; specifies the minimal accepted quality of image corners}
+\cvarg{min\_distance}{Limit, specifying the minimum possible distance between the returned corners; Euclidian distance is used}
+\cvarg{mask}{Region of interest. The function selects points either in the specified region or in the whole image if the mask is NULL}
+\cvarg{block\_size}{Size of the averaging block, passed to the underlying \cross{CornerMinEigenVal} or \cross{CornerHarris} used by the function}
+\cvarg{use\_harris}{If nonzero, Harris operator (\cross{CornerHarris}) is used instead of default \cross{CornerMinEigenVal}}
+\cvarg{k}{Free parameter of Harris detector; used only if ($\texttt{use\_harris} != 0$)}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvGoodFeaturesToTrack} finds corners with big
+eigenvalues in the image. The function first calculates the minimal
+eigenvalue for every source image pixel using the \cross{CornerMinEigenVal}
+function and stores them in \texttt{eig\_image}. Then it performs
+non-maxima suppression (only local maxima in $3\times 3$ neighborhood
+remain). The next step is rejecting the corners with the minimal
+eigenvalue less than
+$\texttt{quality\_level} \cdot max(\texttt{eig\_image}(x,y))$
+.
+Finally, the function ensures that all the corners found are distanced
+enough from one another by considering the corners (the strongest
+corners are considered first) and checking that the distance between
+the newly considered feature and the features considered earlier
+is larger than \texttt{min\_distance}. So, the function removes the
+features than are too close to the stronger features.
+
+\cvfunc{ExtractSURF}\label{ExtractSURF}
+
+Extracts Speeded Up Robust Features from an image.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvExtractSURF( \par const CvArr* image,\par const CvArr* mask,\par CvSeq** keypoints,\par CvSeq** descriptors,\par CvMemStorage* storage,\par CvSURFParams params );
+}{CPP}{ExtractSURF(image,mask,storage,params)-> keypoints,descriptors}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{image}{The input 8-bit grayscale image}
+\cvarg{mask}{The optional input 8-bit mask. The features are only found in the areas that contain more than 50\% of non-zero mask pixels}
+\cvarg{keypoints}{The output parameter; double pointer to the sequence of keypoints. The sequence of CvSURFPoint structures is as follows:}
+\begin{lstlisting}
+ typedef struct CvSURFPoint
+ {
+ CvPoint2D32f pt; // position of the feature within the image
+ int laplacian; // -1, 0 or +1. sign of the laplacian at the point.
+ // can be used to speedup feature comparison
+ // (normally features with laplacians of different
+ // signs can not match)
+ int size; // size of the feature
+ float dir; // orientation of the feature: 0..360 degrees
+ float hessian; // value of the hessian (can be used to
+ // approximately estimate the feature strengths;
+ // see also params.hessianThreshold)
+ }
+ CvSURFPoint;
+\end{lstlisting}
+\cvarg{descriptors}{The optional output parameter; double pointer to the sequence of descriptors. Depending on the params.extended value, each element of the sequence will be either a 64-element or a 128-element floating-point (\texttt{CV\_32F}) vector. If the parameter is NULL, the descriptors are not computed}
+\cvarg{storage}{Memory storage where keypoints and descriptors will be stored}
+\cvarg{params}{Various algorithm parameters put to the structure CvSURFParams:}
+\begin{lstlisting}
+ typedef struct CvSURFParams
+ {
+ int extended; // 0 means basic descriptors (64 elements each),
+ // 1 means extended descriptors (128 elements each)
+ double hessianThreshold; // only features with keypoint.hessian
+ // larger than that are extracted.
+ // good default value is ~300-500 (can depend on the
+ // average local contrast and sharpness of the image).
+ // user can further filter out some features based on
+ // their hessian values and other characteristics.
+ int nOctaves; // the number of octaves to be used for extraction.
+ // With each next octave the feature size is doubled
+ // (3 by default)
+ int nOctaveLayers; // The number of layers within each octave
+ // (4 by default)
+ }
+ CvSURFParams;
+
+ CvSURFParams cvSURFParams(double hessianThreshold, int extended=0);
+ // returns default parameters
+\end{lstlisting}
+\end{description}
+
+The function cvExtractSURF finds robust features in the image, as
+described in
+Bay06
+. For each feature it returns its location, size,
+orientation and optionally the descriptor, basic or extended. The function
+can be used for object tracking and localization, image stitching etc. See the
+\texttt{find\_obj.cpp} demo in OpenCV samples directory.
+
+\cvfunc{GetStarKeypoints}\label{GetStarKeypoints}
+
+Retrieves keypoints using the StarDetector algorithm.
+
+\cvexp{
+CvSeq* cvGetStarKeypoints( \par const CvArr* image,\par CvMemStorage* storage,\par CvStarDetectorParams params=cvStarDetectorParams() );
+}{CPP}{GetStarKeypoints(image,storage,params)-> keypoints}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{image}{The input 8-bit grayscale image}
+\cvarg{storage}{Memory storage where the keypoints will be stored}
+\cvarg{params}{Various algorithm parameters given to the structure CvStarDetectorParams:}
+\begin{lstlisting}
+ typedef struct CvStarDetectorParams
+ {
+ int maxSize; // maximal size of the features detected. The following
+ // values of the parameter are supported:
+ // 4, 6, 8, 11, 12, 16, 22, 23, 32, 45, 46, 64, 90, 128
+ int responseThreshold; // threshold for the approximatd laplacian,
+ // used to eliminate weak features
+ int lineThresholdProjected; // another threshold for laplacian to
+ // eliminate edges
+ int lineThresholdBinarized; // another threshold for the feature
+ // scale to eliminate edges
+ int suppressNonmaxSize; // linear size of a pixel neighborhood
+ // for non-maxima suppression
+ }
+ CvStarDetectorParams;
+\end{lstlisting}
+\end{description}
+
+The function GetStarKeypoints extracts keypoints that are local
+scale-space extremas. The scale-space is constructed by computing
+approximate values of laplacians with different sigma's at each
+pixel. Instead of using pyramids, a popular approach to save computing
+time, all of the laplacians are computed at each pixel of the original
+high-resolution image. But each approximate laplacian value is computed
+in O(1) time regardless of the sigma, thanks to the use of integral
+images. The algorithm is based on the paper
+Agrawal08
+, but instead
+of a square, hexagon or octagon it uses an 8-end star shape, hence the name,
+consisting of overlapping upright and tilted squares.
+
+Each computed feature is represented by the following structure:
+
+\begin{lstlisting}
+typedef struct CvStarKeypoint
+{
+ CvPoint pt; // coordinates of the feature
+ int size; // feature size, see CvStarDetectorParams::maxSize
+ float response; // the approximated laplacian value at that point.
+}
+CvStarKeypoint;
+
+inline CvStarKeypoint cvStarKeypoint(CvPoint pt, int size, float response);
+\end{lstlisting}
+
+Below is the small usage sample:
+
+\begin{lstlisting}
+#include "cv.h"
+#include "highgui.h"
+
+int main(int argc, char** argv)
+{
+ const char* filename = argc > 1 ? argv[1] : "lena.jpg";
+ IplImage* img = cvLoadImage( filename, 0 ), *cimg;
+ CvMemStorage* storage = cvCreateMemStorage(0);
+ CvSeq* keypoints = 0;
+ int i;
+
+ if( !img )
+ return 0;
+ cvNamedWindow( "image", 1 );
+ cvShowImage( "image", img );
+ cvNamedWindow( "features", 1 );
+ cimg = cvCreateImage( cvGetSize(img), 8, 3 );
+ cvCvtColor( img, cimg, CV_GRAY2BGR );
+
+ keypoints = cvGetStarKeypoints( img, storage, cvStarDetectorParams(45) );
+
+ for( i = 0; i < (keypoints ? keypoints->total : 0); i++ )
+ {
+ CvStarKeypoint kpt = *(CvStarKeypoint*)cvGetSeqElem(keypoints, i);
+ int r = kpt.size/2;
+ cvCircle( cimg, kpt.pt, r, CV_RGB(0,255,0));
+ cvLine( cimg, cvPoint(kpt.pt.x + r, kpt.pt.y + r),
+ cvPoint(kpt.pt.x - r, kpt.pt.y - r), CV_RGB(0,255,0));
+ cvLine( cimg, cvPoint(kpt.pt.x - r, kpt.pt.y + r),
+ cvPoint(kpt.pt.x + r, kpt.pt.y - r), CV_RGB(0,255,0));
+ }
+ cvShowImage( "features", cimg );
+ cvWaitKey();
+}
+\end{lstlisting}
+
+\subsection{Sampling, Interpolation and Geometrical Transforms}
+
+\ifC
+\cvfunc{SampleLine}\label{SampleLine}
+Reads the raster line to the buffer.
+
+\cvexp{
+int cvSampleLine(
+
+const CvArr* image
+
+CvPoint pt1
+
+CvPoint pt2
+
+void* buffer
+
+int connectivity=8 );
+
+}{CPP}{PYTHON}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{image}{Image to sample the line from}
+\cvarg{pt1}{Starting line point}
+\cvarg{pt2}{Ending line point}
+\cvarg{buffer}{Buffer to store the line points; must have enough size to store
+$max( |\texttt{pt2.x} - \texttt{pt1.x}|+1, |\texttt{pt2.y} - \texttt{pt1.y}|+1 )$
+points in the case of an 8-connected line and
+$ (|\texttt{pt2.x}-\texttt{pt1.x}|+|\texttt{pt2.y}-\texttt{pt1.y}|+1) $
+in the case of a 4-connected line}
+\cvarg{connectivity}{The line connectivity, 4 or 8}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvSampleLine} implements a particular application of line iterators. The function reads all of the image points lying on the line between \texttt{pt1} and \texttt{pt2}, including the end points, and stores them into the buffer.
+\fi
+
+\cvfunc{GetRectSubPix}\label{GetRectSubPix}
+
+Retrieves the pixel rectangle from an image with sub-pixel accuracy.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvGetRectSubPix(
+
+const CvArr* src,
+
+CvArr* dst,
+
+CvPoint2D32f center );
+}{CPP}{GetRectSubPix(src,dst,center)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{src}{Source image}
+\cvarg{dst}{Extracted rectangle}
+\cvarg{center}{Floating point coordinates of the extracted rectangle center within the source image. The center must be inside the image}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvGetRectSubPix} extracts pixels from \texttt{src}:
+
+\[
+dst(x, y) = src(x + \texttt{center.x} - (width(\texttt{dst})-1)*0.5, y + \texttt{center.y} - (height(\texttt{dst} )-1)*0.5)
+\]
+
+where the values of the pixels at non-integer coordinates are retrieved
+using bilinear interpolation. Every channel of multiple-channel
+images is processed independently. While the rectangle center
+must be inside the image, parts of the rectangle may be
+outside. In this case, the replication border mode is used to get
+pixel values beyond the image boundaries.
+
+\cvfunc{GetQuadrangleSubPix}\label{GetQuadrangleSubPix}
+
+Retrieves the pixel quadrangle from an image with sub-pixel accuracy.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvGetQuadrangleSubPix(
+
+const CvArr* src,
+
+CvArr* dst,
+
+const CvMat* map\_matrix );
+
+}{CPP}{GetQuadrangleSubPix(src,dst,map\_matrix)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{src}{Source image}
+\cvarg{dst}{Extracted quadrangle}
+\cvarg{map\_matrix}{The transformation $2 \times 3$ matrix $[A|b]$ (see the discussion)}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvGetQuadrangleSubPix} extracts pixels from \texttt{src} at sub-pixel accuracy and stores them to \texttt{dst} as follows:
+
+\[
+dst(x, y)= src( A_{11} x' + A_{12} y' + b_1, A_{21} x' + A_{22} y' + b_2)
+\]
+
+where
+
+\[
+x'=x-\frac{(width(dst)-1)}{2},
+y'=y-\frac{(height(dst)-1)}{2}
+\]
+
+and
+
+\[
+\texttt{map\_matrix} = \begin{bmatrix}
+A_{11} & A_{12} & b_1\\
+A_{21} & A_{22} & b_2
+\end{bmatrix}
+\]
+
+The values of pixels at non-integer coordinates are retrieved using bilinear interpolation. When the function needs pixels outside of the image, it uses replication border mode to reconstruct the values. Every channel of multiple-channel images is processed independently.
+
+
+\cvfunc{Resize}\label{Resize}
+Resizes an image.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvResize(
+
+const CvArr* src,
+
+CvArr* dst,
+
+int interpolation=CV\_INTER\_LINEAR );
+
+}{CPP}{Resize(src,dst,interpolation=CV\_INTER\_LINEAR)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{src}{Source image}
+\cvarg{dst}{Destination image}
+\cvarg{interpolation}{Interpolation method:
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{CV\_INTER\_NN}{nearest-neigbor interpolation}
+\cvarg{CV\_INTER\_LINEAR}{bilinear interpolation (used by default)}
+\cvarg{CV\_INTER\_AREA}{resampling using pixel area relation. It is the preferred method for image decimation that gives moire-free results. In terms of zooming it is similar to the \texttt{CV\_INTER\_NN} method}
+\cvarg{CV\_INTER\_CUBIC}{bicubic interpolation}
+\end{description}}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvResize} resizes an image \texttt{src} so that it fits exactly into \texttt{dst}. If ROI is set, the function considers the ROI as supported.
+
+\cvfunc{WarpAffine}\label{WarpAffine}
+
+Applies an affine transformation to an image.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvWarpAffine(
+
+const CvArr* src,
+
+CvArr* dst,
+
+const CvMat* map\_matrix,
+
+int flags=CV\_INTER\_LINEAR+CV\_WARP\_FILL\_OUTLIERS,
+
+CvScalar fillval=cvScalarAll(0) );
+
+}{CPP}{WarpAffline(src,dst,map\_matrix,flags=CV\_INTER\_LINEAR+CV\_WARP\_FILL\_OUTLIERS,fillval=cvScalarAll(0))-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{src}{Source image}
+\cvarg{dst}{Destination image}
+\cvarg{map\_matrix}{$2\times 3$ transformation matrix}
+\cvarg{flags}{A combination of interpolation methods and the following optional flags:
+\begin{description}
+ \cvarg{CV\_WARP\_FILL\_OUTLIERS}{fills all of the destination image pixels; if some of them correspond to outliers in the source image, they are set to \texttt{fillval}}
+ \cvarg{CV\_WARP\_INVERSE\_MAP}{indicates that \texttt{matrix} is inversely
+ transformed from the destination image to the source and, thus, can be used
+ directly for pixel interpolation. Otherwise, the function finds
+ the inverse transform from \texttt{map\_matrix}}}
+\end{description}
+\cvarg{fillval}{A value used to fill outliers}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvWarpAffine} transforms the source image using the specified matrix:
+
+\[
+dst(x',y') = src(x,y)
+\]
+
+where
+
+\[
+\begin{matrix}
+\begin{bmatrix}
+x'\\
+y'
+\end{bmatrix} = \texttt{map\_matrix} \cdot \begin{bmatrix}
+x\\
+y\\
+1
+\end{bmatrix} & \mbox{if CV\_WARP\_INVERSE\_MAP is not set}\\
+\begin{bmatrix}
+x\\
+y
+\end{bmatrix} = \texttt{map\_matrix} \cdot \begin{bmatrix}
+x'\\
+y'\\
+1
+\end{bmatrix}& \mbox{otherwise}
+\end{matrix}
+\]
+
+The function is similar to \cross{GetQuadrangleSubPix} but they are not exactly the same. \cross{WarpAffine} requires input and output image have the same data type, has larger overhead (so it is not quite suitable for small images) and can leave part of destination image unchanged. While \cross{GetQuadrangleSubPix} may extract quadrangles from 8-bit images into floating-point buffer, has smaller overhead and always changes the whole destination image content.
+
+To transform a sparse set of points, use the \cross{Transform} function from cxcore.
+
+\cvfunc{GetAffineTransform}\label{GetAffineTransform}
+
+Calculates the affine transform from 3 corresponding points.
+
+\cvexp{
+CvMat* cvGetAffineTransform(
+
+const CvPoint2D32f* src,
+
+const CvPoint2D32f* dst,
+
+CvMat* map\_matrix );
+}{CPP}{GetAffineTransform(src,dst,map\_matrix)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{src}{ Coordinates of 3 triangle vertices in the source image}
+\cvarg{dst}{ Coordinates of the 3 corresponding triangle vertices in the destination image}
+\cvarg{map\_matrix}{ Pointer to the destination $2 \times 3$ matrix}
+\end{description}
+
+The function cvGetAffineTransform calculates the matrix of an affine transform such that:
+
+\[
+\begin{bmatrix}
+x'_i\\
+y'_i
+\end{bmatrix}
+=
+\texttt{map\_matrix}
+\cdot
+\begin{bmatrix}
+x_i\\
+y_i\\
+1
+\end{bmatrix}
+\]
+
+where
+
+\[
+dst(i)=(x'_i,y'_i),
+src(i)=(x_i, y_i),
+i=0,1,2
+\]
+
+\cvfunc{2DRotationMatrix}\label{2DRotationMatrix}
+
+Calculates the affine matrix of 2d rotation.
+
+\cvexp{
+CvMat* cv2DRotationMatrix(
+
+CvPoint2D32f center,
+
+double angle,
+
+double scale,
+
+CvMat* map\_matrix );
+}{CPP}{2DRotationMatrix(center,angle,scale,map\_matrix)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{center}{Center of the rotation in the source image}
+\cvarg{angle}{The rotation angle in degrees. Positive values mean counter-clockwise rotation (the coordinate origin is assumed to be the top-left corner)}
+\cvarg{scale}{Isotropic scale factor}
+\cvarg{map\_matrix}{Pointer to the destination $2\times 3$ matrix}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cv2DRotationMatrix} calculates the following matrix:
+
+\[
+\begin{bmatrix}
+a & \beta & (1-a) \cdot \texttt{center.x} - \beta \cdot \texttt{center.y} \\
+\beta - 1 & a & \beta \cdot \texttt{center.x} - (1-a) \cdot \texttt{center.y}
+\end{bmatrix}
+\]
+
+where
+
+\[
+a = \texttt{scale} \cdot cos(\texttt{angle}), \beta = \texttt{scale} \cdot sin(\texttt{angle})
+\]
+
+The transformation maps the rotation center to itself. If this is not the purpose, the shift should be adjusted.
+
+\cvfunc{WarpPerspective}\label{WarpPerspective}
+
+Applies a perspective transformation to an image.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvWarpPerspective(
+
+const CvArr* src,
+
+CvArr* dst,
+
+const CvMat* map\_matrix,
+
+int flags=CV\_INTER\_LINEAR+CV\_WARP\_FILL\_OUTLIERS,
+
+CvScalar fillval=cvScalarAll(0) );
+
+}{CPP}{WarpPerspective(src,dst,map\_matrix,flags=CV\_I
+NNER\_LINEAR+CV\_WARP\_FILL\_OUTLIERS,fillval=cvScalarAll(0
+))-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{src}{Source image}
+\cvarg{dst}{Destination image}
+\cvarg{map\_matrix}{$3\times 3$ transformation matrix}
+\cvarg{flags}{A combination of interpolation methods and the following optional flags:
+\begin{description}
+ \cvarg{CV\_WARP\_FILL\_OUTLIERS}{fills all of the destination image pixels; if some of them correspond to outliers in the source image, they are set to \texttt{fillval}}
+ \cvarg{CV\_WARP\_INVERSE\_MAP}{indicates that \texttt{matrix} is inversely transformed from the destination image to the source and, thus, can be used directly for pixel interpolation. Otherwise, the function finds the inverse transform from \texttt{map\_matrix}}
+\end{description}}
+\cvarg{fillval}{A value used to fill outliers}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvWarpPerspective} transforms the source image using the specified matrix:
+
+\[
+\begin{matrix}
+\begin{bmatrix}
+x'\\
+y'
+\end{bmatrix} = \texttt{map\_matrix} \cdot \begin{bmatrix}
+x\\
+y\\
+1
+\end{bmatrix} & \mbox{if CV\_WARP\_INVERSE\_MAP is not set}\\
+\begin{bmatrix}
+x\\
+y
+\end{bmatrix} = \texttt{map\_matrix} \cdot \begin{bmatrix}
+x'\\
+y'\\
+1
+\end{bmatrix}& \mbox{otherwise}
+\end{matrix}
+\]
+
+For a sparse set of points use the \cross{PerspectiveTransform} function from CxCore.
+
+
+\cvfunc{GetPerspectiveTransform}\label{GetPerspectiveTransform}
+
+Calculates the perspective transform from 4 corresponding points.
+
+\cvexp{
+CvMat* cvGetPerspectiveTransform(
+
+const CvPoint2D32f* src,
+
+const CvPoint2D32f* dst,
+
+CvMat* map\_matrix );
+}{CPP}{GetPerspectiveTransform(src,dst,map\_matrix)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{src}{Coordinates of 4 quadrangle vertices in the source image}
+\cvarg{dst}{Coordinates of the 4 corresponding quadrangle vertices in the destination image}
+\cvarg{map\_matrix}{Pointer to the destination $3\times 3$ matrix}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvGetPerspectiveTransform} calculates a matrix of perspective transforms such that:
+
+\[
+\begin{bmatrix}
+x'_i\\
+y'_i
+\end{bmatrix}
+=
+\texttt{map\_matrix}
+\cdot
+\begin{bmatrix}
+x_i\\
+y_i\\
+1
+\end{bmatrix}
+\]
+
+where
+
+\[
+dst(i)=(x'_i,y'_i),
+src(i)=(x_i, y_i),
+i=0,1,2,3
+\]
+
+\cvfunc{Remap}\label{Remap}
+
+Applies a generic geometrical transformation to the image.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvRemap(
+
+const CvArr* src,
+
+CvArr* dst,
+
+const CvArr* mapx,
+
+const CvArr* mapy,
+
+int flags=CV\_INTER\_LINEAR+CV\_WARP\_FILL\_OUTLIERS,
+
+CvScalar fillval=cvScalarAll(0) );
+
+}{CPP}{Remap(src,dst,mapx,mapy,flags=CV\_INNER\_LINEAR+CV\_WARP\_FILL\_OUTLIERS,fillval=cvScalarAll0))-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{src}{Source image}
+\cvarg{dst}{Destination image}
+\cvarg{mapx}{The map of x-coordinates (32fC1 image)}
+\cvarg{mapy}{The map of y-coordinates (32fC1 image)}
+\cvarg{flags}{A combination of interpolation method and the following optional flag(s):
+\begin{description}
+ \cvarg{CV\_WARP\_FILL\_OUTLIERS}{fills all of the destination image pixels. If some of them correspond to outliers in the source image, they are set to \texttt{fillval}}
+\end{description}}
+\cvarg{fillval}{A value used to fill outliers}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvRemap} transforms the source image using the specified map:
+
+\[
+\texttt{dst}(x,y) = \texttt{src}(\texttt{mapx}(x,y),\texttt{mapy}(x,y))
+\]
+
+Similar to other geometrical transformations, some interpolation method (specified by user) is used to extract pixels with non-integer coordinates.
+
+\cvfunc{LogPolar}\label{LogPolar}
+
+Remaps an image to log-polar space.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvLogPolar(
+
+const CvArr* src,
+
+CvArr* dst,
+
+CvPoint2D32f center,
+
+double M,
+
+int flags=CV\_INTER\_LINEAR+CV\_WARP\_FILL\_OUTLIERS );
+
+}{CPP}{LogPolar(src,dst,center,M,flags=CV\_INNER\_LINEAR+CV\_WARP\_FILL\_OUTLIERS)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{src}{Source image}
+\cvarg{dst}{Destination image}
+\cvarg{center}{The transformation center; where the output precision is maximal}
+\cvarg{M}{Magnitude scale parameter. See below}
+\cvarg{flags}{A combination of interpolation methods and the following optional flags:
+\begin{description}
+ \cvarg{CV\_WARP\_FILL\_OUTLIERS}{fills all of the destination image pixels. If some of them correspond to outliers in the source image, they are set to zero}
+ \cvarg{CV\_WARP\_INVERSE\_MAP}{See below}
+\end{description}}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvLogPolar} transforms the source image using the following transformation:
+
+Forward transformation (\texttt{CV\_WARP\_INVERSE\_MAP} is not set):
+
+\[
+dst(\phi,\rho) = src(x,y)
+\]
+
+Inverse transformation (\texttt{CV\_WARP\_INVERSE\_MAP} is set):
+
+\[
+dst(x,y) = src(\phi,\rho)
+\]
+
+where
+
+\[
+\rho = M \cdot \log{\sqrt{x^2 + y^2}},
+\phi=atan(y/x)
+\]
+
+The function emulates the human "foveal" vision and can be used for fast scale and rotation-invariant template matching, for object tracking and so forth.
+
+
+\cvfunc{Example: Log-polar transformation}
+\begin{lstlisting}
+#include <cv.h>
+#include <highgui.h>
+
+int main(int argc, char** argv)
+{
+ IplImage* src;
+
+ if( argc == 2 && (src=cvLoadImage(argv[1],1) != 0 )
+ {
+ IplImage* dst = cvCreateImage( cvSize(256,256), 8, 3 );
+ IplImage* src2 = cvCreateImage( cvGetSize(src), 8, 3 );
+ cvLogPolar( src, dst, cvPoint2D32f(src->width/2,src->height/2), 40,
+ CV_INTER_LINEAR+CV_WARP_FILL_OUTLIERS );
+ cvLogPolar( dst, src2, cvPoint2D32f(src->width/2,src->height/2), 40,
+ CV_INTER_LINEAR+CV_WARP_FILL_OUTLIERS+CV_WARP_INVERSE_MAP );
+ cvNamedWindow( "log-polar", 1 );
+ cvShowImage( "log-polar", dst );
+ cvNamedWindow( "inverse log-polar", 1 );
+ cvShowImage( "inverse log-polar", src2 );
+ cvWaitKey();
+ }
+ return 0;
+}
+\end{lstlisting}
+
+And this is what the program displays when \texttt{opencv/samples/c/fruits.jpg} is passed to it
+
+\includegraphics[width=0.4\textwidth]{pics/logpolar.jpg}
+\includegraphics[width=0.4\textwidth]{pics/inv_logpolar.jpg}
+
+\subsection{Morphological Operations}
+
+\cvfunc{CreateStructuringElementEx}\label{CreateStructuringElementEx}
+
+Creates a structuring element.
+
+\cvexp{
+IplConvKernel* cvCreateStructuringElementEx(
+
+int cols,
+
+int rows,
+
+int anchor\_x,
+
+int anchor\_y,
+
+int shape,
+
+int* values=NULL );
+}{CPP}{CreateStructuringElementEx(cols,rows,anchor\_x,anchor\_y,shape,values={NULL,0})-> kernel}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{cols}{Number of columns in the structuring element}
+\cvarg{rows}{Number of rows in the structuring element}
+\cvarg{anchor\_x}{Relative horizontal offset of the anchor point}
+\cvarg{anchor\_y}{Relative vertical offset of the anchor point}
+\cvarg{shape}{Shape of the structuring element; may have the following values:
+\begin{description}
+ \cvarg{CV\_SHAPE\_RECT}{a rectangular element}
+ \cvarg{CV\_SHAPE\_CROSS}{a cross-shaped element}
+ \cvarg{CV\_SHAPE\_ELLIPSE}{an elliptic element}
+ \cvarg{CV\_SHAPE\_CUSTOM}{a user-defined element. In this case the parameter \texttt{values} specifies the mask, that is, which neighbors of the pixel must be considered}
+\end{description}}
+\cvarg{values}{Pointer to the structuring element data, a plane array, representing row-by-row scanning of the element matrix. Non-zero values indicate points that belong to the element. If the pointer is \texttt{NULL}, then all values are considered non-zero, that is, the element is of a rectangular shape. This parameter is considered only if the shape is \texttt{CV\_SHAPE\_CUSTOM} }
+\end{description}
+
+The function CreateStructuringElementEx allocates and fills the structure \texttt{IplConvKernel}, which can be used as a structuring element in the morphological operations.
+
+\ifC
+\cvfunc{ReleaseStructuringElement}\label{ReleaseStructuringElement}
+
+Deletes a structuring element.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvReleaseStructuringElement( IplConvKernel** element );
+}{CPP}{PYTHON}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{element}{Pointer to the deleted structuring element}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvReleaseStructuringElement} releases the structure \texttt{IplConvKernel} that is no longer needed. If \texttt{*element} is \texttt{NULL}, the function has no effect.
+
+\fi
+
+\cvfunc{Erode}\label{Erode}
+
+Erodes an image by using a specific structuring element.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvErode(
+
+const CvArr* src,
+
+CvArr* dst,
+
+IplConvKernel* element=NULL,
+
+int iterations=1 );
+}{CPP}{Erode(src,dst,element=NULL,itertions=1)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{src}{Source image}
+\cvarg{dst}{Destination image}
+\cvarg{element}{Structuring element used for erosion. If it is \texttt{NULL}, a $3\times 3$ rectangular structuring element is used}
+\cvarg{iterations}{Number of times erosion is applied}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvErode} erodes the source image using the specified structuring element that determines the shape of a pixel neighborhood over which the minimum is taken:
+
+\[
+\min_{(x',y') \, in \, \texttt{element}}src(x+x',y+y')
+\]
+
+The function supports the in-place mode. Erosion can be applied several (\texttt{iterations}) times. For color images, each channel is processed independently.
+
+\cvfunc{Dilate}\label{Dilate}
+
+Dilates an image by using a specific structuring element.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvDilate(
+
+const CvArr* src,
+
+CvArr* dst,
+
+IplConvKernel* element=NULL,
+
+int iterations=1 );
+}{CPP}{Dilate(src,dst,element=NULL,iterations=1)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{src}{Source image}
+\cvarg{dst}{Destination image}
+\cvarg{element}{Structuring element used for dilation. If it is \texttt{NULL}, a $3\times 3$ rectangular structuring element is used}
+\cvarg{iterations}{Number of times dilation is applied}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvDilate} dilates the source image using the specified structuring element that determines the shape of a pixel neighborhood over which the maximum is taken:
+
+\[
+\max_{(x',y') \, in \, \texttt{element}}src(x+x',y+y')
+\]
+
+The function supports the in-place mode. Dilation can be applied several (\texttt{iterations}) times. For color images, each channel is processed independently.
+
+\cvfunc{MorphologyEx}\label{MorphologyEx}
+
+Performs advanced morphological transformations.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvMorphologyEx(
+
+const CvArr* src,
+
+CvArr* dst,
+
+CvArr* temp,
+
+IplConvKernel* element,
+
+int operation,
+
+int iterations=1 );
+}{CPP}{MorphologyEx(src,dst,temp,element,operation,iterations=1)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{src}{Source image}
+\cvarg{dst}{Destination image}
+\cvarg{temp}{Temporary image, required in some cases}
+\cvarg{element}{Structuring element}
+\cvarg{operation}{Type of morphological operation, one of the following:}
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{CV\_MOP\_OPEN}{opening}
+\cvarg{CV\_MOP\_CLOSE}{closing}
+\cvarg{CV\_MOP\_GRADIENT}{morphological gradient}
+\cvarg{CV\_MOP\_TOPHAT}{"top hat"}
+\cvarg{CV\_MOP\_BLACKHAT}{"black hat"}
+\end{description}
+\cvarg{iterations}{Number of times erosion and dilation are applied}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvMorphologyEx} can perform advanced morphological transformations using erosion and dilation as basic operations.
+
+Opening:
+
+\[
+dst=open(src,element)=dilate(erode(src,element),element)
+\]
+
+Closing:
+
+\[
+dst=close(src,element)=erode(dilate(src,element),element)
+\]
+
+Morphological gradient:
+
+\[
+dst=morph\_grad(src,element)=dilate(src,element)-erode(src,element)
+\]
+
+"Top hat":
+
+\[
+dst=tophat(src,element)=src-open(src,element)
+\]
+
+"Black hat":
+
+\[
+dst=blackhat(src,element)=close(src,element)-src
+\]
+
+The temporary image \texttt{temp} is required for a morphological gradient and, in the case of in-place operation, for "top hat" and "black hat".
+
+\subsection{Filters and Color Conversion}
+
+\cvfunc{Smooth}\label{Smooth}
+
+Smooths the image in one of several ways.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvSmooth(
+
+const CvArr* src,
+
+CvArr* dst,
+
+int smoothtype=CV\_GAUSSIAN,
+
+int param1=3,
+
+int param2=0,
+
+double param3=0, double param4=0 );
+}{CPP}{Smooth(src,dst,smoothtype=CV\_GAUSSIAN,param1=3,param2=0,param3=0,param4=0)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{src}{The source image}
+\cvarg{dst}{The destination image}
+\cvarg{smoothtype}{Type of the smoothing:
+\begin{description}
+ \cvarg{CV\_BLUR\_NO\_SCALE (simple blur with no scaling)}{summation over a pixel $\texttt{param1}\times \texttt{param2}$ neighborhood. If the neighborhood size varies, one can precompute the integral image with the \cross{Integral} function}
+ \cvarg{CV\_BLUR (simple blur)}{summation over a pixel $\texttt{param1}\times \texttt{param2}$ neighborhood with subsequent scaling by $1/(\texttt{param1} \cdot \texttt{param2})$}
+ \cvarg{CV\_GAUSSIAN (gaussian blur)}{convolving image with a $\texttt{param1}\times \texttt{param2}$ Gaussian kernel}
+ \cvarg{CV\_MEDIAN (median blur)}{finds the median of a $\texttt{param1}\times \texttt{param1}$ neighborhood (i.e. the neighborhood is square)}
+ \cvarg{CV\_BILATERAL (bilateral filter)}{applying bilateral $\texttt{param1}\times \texttt{param2}$ filtering with color sigma=\texttt{param3} and space sigma=\texttt{param4}. \texttt{param1} and \texttt{param2} must be equal (square). Information about bilateral filtering can be found at
+\url{http://www.dai.ed.ac.uk/CVonline/LOCAL\_COPIES/MANDUCHI1/Bilateral\_Filtering.html}
+}
+\end{description}}
+\cvarg{param1}{The first parameter of the smoothing operation}
+\cvarg{param2}{The second parameter of the smoothing operation. In the case of simple scaled/non-scaled and Gaussian blur if \texttt{param2} is zero, it is set to \texttt{param1}}
+\cvarg{param3}{In the case of a Gaussian parameter this parameter may specify Gaussian $\sigma$ (standard deviation). If it is zero, it is calculated from the kernel size:
+\[
+\sigma = 0.3 (n/2 - 1) + 0.8 \quad \text{where} \quad n=
+\begin{array}{l l}
+\mbox{\texttt{param1} for horizontal kernel}\\
+\mbox{\texttt{param2} for vertical kernel}
+\end{array}
+\]
+
+Using standard sigma for small kernels ($3\times 3$ to $7\times 7$) gives better speed. If \texttt{param3} is not zero, while \texttt{param1} and \texttt{param2} are zeros, the kernel size is calculated from the sigma (to provide accurate enough operation).}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvSmooth} smooths an image using one of several methods. Every of the methods has some features and restrictions listed below
+
+Blur with no scaling works with single-channel images only and supports accumulation of 8-bit to 16-bit format (similar to \cross{Sobel} and \cross{Laplace}) and 32-bit floating point to 32-bit floating-point format.
+
+Simple blur and Gaussian blur support 1- or 3-channel, 8-bit and 32-bit floating point images. These two methods can process images in-place.
+
+Median and bilateral filters work with 1- or 3-channel 8-bit images and can not process images in-place.
+
+\cvfunc{Filter2D}\label{Filter2D}
+
+Convolves an image with the kernel.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvFilter2D(
+
+const CvArr* src,
+
+CvArr* dst,
+
+const CvMat* kernel,
+
+CvPoint anchor=cvPoint(-1,-1));
+}{CPP}{Filter2D(src,dst,kernel,anchor=(-1,-1))-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{src}{The source image}
+\cvarg{dst}{The destination image}
+\cvarg{kernel}{Convolution kernel, a single-channel floating point matrix. If you want to apply different kernels to different channels, split the image into separate color planes using \cross{Split} and process them individually}
+\cvarg{anchor}{The anchor of the kernel that indicates the relative position of a filtered point within the kernel. The anchor shoud lie within the kernel. The special default value (-1,-1) means that it is at the kernel center}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvFilter2D} applies an arbitrary linear filter to the image. In-place operation is supported. When the aperture is partially outside the image, the function interpolates outlier pixel values from the nearest pixels that are inside the image.
+
+\cvfunc{CopyMakeBorder}\label{CopyMakeBorder}
+
+Copies an image and makes a border around it.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvCopyMakeBorder(
+
+const CvArr* src,
+
+CvArr* dst,
+
+CvPoint offset,
+
+int bordertype,
+
+CvScalar value=cvScalarAll(0) );
+}{CPP}{CopyMakeBorder(src,dst,offset,bordrtype,value=cvScalarAll(0))-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{src}{The source image}
+\cvarg{dst}{The destination image}
+\cvarg{offset}{Coordinates of the top-left corner (or bottom-left in the case of images with bottom-left origin) of the destination image rectangle where the source image (or its ROI) is copied. Size of the rectanlge matches the source image size/ROI size}
+\cvarg{bordertype}{Type of the border to create around the copied source image rectangle; types inlude:
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{IPL\_BORDER\_CONSTANT}{border is filled with the fixed value, passed as last parameter of the function.}
+\cvarg{IPL\_BORDER\_REPLICATE}{the pixels from the top and bottom rows, the left-most and right-most columns are replicated to fill the border.}
+\end{description}
+(The other two border types from IPL, \texttt{IPL\_BORDER\_REFLECT} and \texttt{IPL\_BORDER\_WRAP}, are currently unsupported)}
+\cvarg{value}{Value of the border pixels if \texttt{bordertype} is \texttt{IPL\_BORDER\_CONSTANT}}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvCopyMakeBorder} copies the source 2D array into the interior of the destination array and makes a border of the specified type around the copied area. The function is useful when one needs to emulate border type that is different from the one embedded into a specific algorithm implementation. For example, morphological functions, as well as most of other filtering functions in OpenCV, internally use replication border type, while the user may need a zero border or a border, filled with 1's or 255's.
+
+\cvfunc{Integral}\label{Integral}
+
+Calculates the integral of an image.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvIntegral(
+
+const CvArr* image,
+
+CvArr* sum,
+
+CvArr* sqsum=NULL,
+
+CvArr* tilted\_sum=NULL );
+}{CPP}{Integral(image,sum,sqsum=NULL,tilted\_sum=NULL)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{image}{The source image, $W\times H$, 8-bit or floating-point (32f or 64f)}
+\cvarg{sum}{The integral image, $(W+1)\times (H+1)$, 32-bit integer or double precision floating-point (64f)}
+\cvarg{sqsum}{The integral image for squared pixel values, $(W+1)\times (H+1)$, double precision floating-point (64f)}
+\cvarg{tilted\_sum}{The integral for the image rotated by 45 degrees, $(W+1)\times (H+1)$, the same data type as \texttt{sum}}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvIntegral} calculates one or more integral images for the source image as following:
+
+\[
+\texttt{sum}(X,Y) = \sum_{x<X,y<Y} \texttt{image}(x,y)
+\]
+
+\[
+\texttt{sqsum}(X,Y) = \sum_{x<X,y<Y} \texttt{image}(x,y)^2
+\]
+
+\[
+\texttt{tilted\_sum}(X,Y) = \sum_{y<Y,abs(x-X)<y} \texttt{image}(x,y)
+\]
+
+Using these integral images, one may calculate sum, mean and standard deviation over a specific up-right or rotated rectangular region of the image in a constant time, for example:
+
+\[
+\sum_{x_1<=x<x_2, \, y_1<=y<y_2} = \texttt{sum}(x_2,y_2)-\texttt{sum}(x_1,y_2)-\texttt{sum}(x_2,y_1)+\texttt{sum}(x_1,x_1)
+\]
+
+It makes possible to do a fast blurring or fast block correlation with variable window size, for example. In the case of multi-channel images, sums for each channel are accumulated independently.
+
+\cvfunc{CvtColor}\label{CvtColor}
+
+Converts an image from one color space to another.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvCvtColor(
+
+const CvArr* src,
+
+CvArr* dst,
+
+int code );
+}{CPP}{CvtColor(src,dst,code)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{src}{The source 8-bit (8u), 16-bit (16u) or single-precision floating-point (32f) image}
+\cvarg{dst}{The destination image of the same data type as the source. The number of channels may be different}
+\cvarg{code}{Color conversion operation that can be specifed using \texttt{CV\_ \textit{src\_color\_space} 2 \textit{dst\_color\_space}} constants (see below)}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvCvtColor} converts the input image from one color
+space to another. The function ignores the \texttt{colorModel} and
+\texttt{channelSeq} fields of the \texttt{IplImage} header, so the
+source image color space should be specified correctly (including
+order of the channels in the case of RGB space. For example, BGR means 24-bit
+format with $B_0, G_0, R_0, B_1, G_1, R_1, ...$ layout
+whereas RGB means 24-format with $R_0, G_0, B_0, R_1, G_1, B_1, ...$
+layout).
+
+The conventional range for R,G,B channel values is:
+
+\begin{itemize}
+ \item 0 to 255 for 8-bit images
+ \item 0 to 65535 for 16-bit images and
+ \item 0 to 1 for floating-point images.
+\end{itemize}
+
+Of course, in the case of linear transformations the range can be
+specific, but in order to get correct results in the case of non-linear
+transformations, the input image should be scaled.
+
+The function can do the following transformations:
+
+\begin{itemize}
+ \item Transformations within RGB space like adding/removing the alpha channel, reversing the channel order, conversion to/from 16-bit RGB color (R5:G6:B5 or R5:G5:B5), as well as conversion to/from grayscale using:
+ \[
+ \text{RGB[A] to Gray:} Y \leftarrow 0.299 \cdot R + 0.587 \cdot G + 0.114 \cdot B
+ \]
+ and
+ \[
+ \text{Gray to RGB[A]:} R \leftarrow Y, G \leftarrow Y, B \leftarrow Y, A \leftarrow 0
+ \]
+
+The conversion from a RGB image to gray is done with:
+\begin{lstlisting}
+cvCvtColor(src ,bwsrc, CV_RGB2GRAY)
+\end{lstlisting}
+
+ \item RGB $\leftrightarrow$ CIE XYZ.Rec 709 with D65 white point (\texttt{CV\_BGR2XYZ, CV\_RGB2XYZ, CV\_XYZ2BGR, CV\_XYZ2RGB}):
+ \[
+ \begin{bmatrix}
+ X \\
+ Y \\
+ Z
+ \end{bmatrix}
+ \leftarrow
+ \begin{bmatrix}
+0.412453 & 0.357580 & 0.180423\\
+0.212671 & 0.715160 & 0.072169\\
+0.019334 & 0.119193 & 0.950227
+ \end{bmatrix}
+ \cdot
+ \begin{bmatrix}
+ R \\
+ G \\
+ B
+ \end{bmatrix}
+ \]
+ \[
+ \begin{bmatrix}
+ R \\
+ G \\
+ B
+ \end{bmatrix}
+ \leftarrow
+ \begin{bmatrix}
+3.240479 & -1.53715 & -0.498535\\
+-0.969256 & 1.875991 & 0.041556\\
+0.055648 & -0.204043 & 1.057311
+ \end{bmatrix}
+ \cdot
+ \begin{bmatrix}
+ X \\
+ Y \\
+ Z
+ \end{bmatrix}
+ \]
+$X$, $Y$ and $Z$ cover the whole value range (in the case of floating-point images $Z$ may exceed 1).
+
+ \item RGB $\leftrightarrow$ YCrCb JPEG (a.k.a. YCC) (\texttt{CV\_BGR2YCrCb, CV\_RGB2YCrCb, CV\_YCrCb2BGR, CV\_YCrCb2RGB})
+ \[ Y \leftarrow 0.299 \cdot R + 0.587 \cdot G + 0.114 \cdot B \]
+ \[ Cr \leftarrow (R-Y) \cdot 0.713 + delta \]
+ \[ Cb \leftarrow (B-Y) \cdot 0.564 + delta \]
+ \[ R \leftarrow Y + 1.403 \cdot (Cr - delta) \]
+ \[ G \leftarrow Y - 0.344 \cdot (Cr - delta) - 0.714 \cdot (Cb - delta) \]
+ \[ B \leftarrow Y + 1.773 \cdot (Cb - delta) \]
+where
+ \[
+ delta = \left\{
+ \begin{array}{l l}
+ 128 & \mbox{for 8-bit images}\\
+ 32768 & \mbox{for 16-bit images}\\
+ 0.5 & \mbox{for floating-point images}
+ \end{array} \right.
+ \]
+Y, Cr and Cb cover the whole value range.
+
+ \item RGB $\leftrightarrow$ HSV (\texttt{CV\_BGR2HSV, CV\_RGB2HSV, CV\_HSV2BGR, CV\_HSV2RGB})
+ in the case of 8-bit and 16-bit images
+ R, G and B are converted to floating-point format and scaled to fit the 0 to 1 range
+ \[ V \leftarrow max(R,G,B) \]
+
+\[ S \leftarrow \fork{\frac{V-min(R,G,B)}{V}}{if $V \neq 0$}{0}{otherwise} \]
+\[ H \leftarrow \forkthree
+{{60(G - B)}/{S}}{if $V=R$}
+{{120+60(B - R)}/{S}}{if $V=G$}
+{{240+60(R - G)}/{S}}{if $V=B$} \]
+if $H<0$ then $H \leftarrow H+360$
+
+On output $0 \leq V \leq 1$, $0 \leq S \leq 1$, $0 \leq H \leq 360$.
+
+The values are then converted to the destination data type:
+\begin{description}
+\item[8-bit images]
+\[ V \leftarrow 255 V, S \leftarrow 255 S, H \leftarrow H/2 \text{(to fit to 0 to 255)} \]
+\item[16-bit images (currently not supported)]
+\[ V <- 65535 V, S <- 65535 S, H <- H \]
+\item[32-bit images]
+H, S, V are left as is
+\end{description}
+
+ \item RGB $\leftrightarrow$ HLS (\texttt{CV\_BGR2HLS, CV\_RGB2HLS, CV\_HLS2BGR, CV\_HLS2RGB}).
+ in the case of 8-bit and 16-bit images
+ R, G and B are converted to floating-point format and scaled to fit the 0 to 1 range.
+ \[ V_{max} \leftarrow {max}(R,G,B) \]
+ \[ V_{min} \leftarrow {min}(R,G,B) \]
+ \[ L \leftarrow \frac{V_{max} - V_{min}}{2} \]
+ \[ S \leftarrow \fork
+ {\frac{V_{max} - V_{min}}{V_{max} + V_{min}}}{if $L < 0.5$}
+ {\frac{V_{max} - V_{min}}{2 - (V_{max} + V_{min})}}{if $L \ge 0.5$} \]
+ \[ H \leftarrow \forkthree
+ {{60(G - B)}/{S}}{if $V_{max}=R$}
+ {{120+60(B - R)}/{S}}{if $V_{max}=G$}
+ {{240+60(R - G)}/{S}}{if $V_{max}=B$} \]
+ if $H<0$ then $H \leftarrow H+360$
+On output $0 \leq V \leq 1$, $0 \leq S \leq 1$, $0 \leq H \leq 360$.
+
+The values are then converted to the destination data type:
+\begin{description}
+\item[8-bit images]
+\[ V \leftarrow 255 V, S \leftarrow 255 S, H \leftarrow H/2 \text{(to fit to 0 to 255)} \]
+\item[16-bit images (currently not supported)]
+\[ V <- 65535 V, S <- 65535 S, H <- H \]
+\item[32-bit images]
+H, S, V are left as is
+\end{description}
+
+ \item RGB $\leftrightarrow$ CIE L*a*b* (\texttt{CV\_BGR2Lab, CV\_RGB2Lab, CV\_Lab2BGR, CV\_Lab2RGB})
+ in the case of 8-bit and 16-bit images
+ R, G and B are converted to floating-point format and scaled to fit the 0 to 1 range
+\[ \vecthree{X}{Y}{Z} \leftarrow \vecthreethree
+{0.412453}{0.357580}{0.180423}
+{0.212671}{0.715160}{0.072169}
+{0.019334}{0.119193}{0.950227}
+\cdot
+\vecthree{R}{G}{B} \]
+\[ X \leftarrow X/X_n, \text{where} X_n = 0.950456 \]
+\[ Z \leftarrow Z/Z_n, \text{where} Z_n = 1.088754 \]
+\[ L \leftarrow \fork
+{116*Y^{1/3}-16}{for $Y>0.008856$}
+{903.3*Y}{for $Y \le 0.008856$} \]
+\[ a \leftarrow 500 (f(X)-f(Y)) + delta \]
+\[ b \leftarrow 200 (f(Y)-f(Z)) + delta \]
+where
+\[f(t)=\fork
+{t^{1/3}}{for $t>0.008856$}
+{7.787 t+16/116}{for $t<=0.008856$} \]
+and
+\[ delta = \fork{128}{for 8-bit images}{0}{for floating-point images} \]
+On output $0 \leq L \leq 100$, $-127 \leq a \leq 127$, $-127 \leq b \leq 127$
+
+The values are then converted to the destination data type:
+\begin{description}
+\item[8-bit images]
+\[L \leftarrow L*255/100, a \leftarrow a + 128, b \leftarrow b + 128\]
+\item[16-bit images] currently not supported
+\item[32-bit images]
+L, a, b are left as is
+\end{description}
+
+ \item RGB $\leftrightarrow$ CIE L*u*v* (\texttt{CV\_BGR2Luv, CV\_RGB2Luv, CV\_Luv2BGR, CV\_Luv2RGB})
+ in the case of 8-bit and 16-bit images
+ R, G and B are converted to floating-point format and scaled to fit 0 to 1 range
+ \[ \vecthree{X}{Y}{Z} \leftarrow \vecthreethree
+{0.412453}{0.357580}{0.180423}
+{0.212671}{0.715160}{0.072169}
+{0.019334}{0.119193}{0.950227}
+\cdot
+\vecthree{R}{G}{B} \]
+\[ L \leftarrow \fork
+{116 Y^{1/3}}{for $Y>0.008856$}
+{903.3 Y}{for $Y<=0.008856$} \]
+\[ u' \leftarrow 4*X/(X + 15*Y + 3 Z) \]
+\[ v' \leftarrow 9*Y/(X + 15*Y + 3 Z) \]
+\[ u \leftarrow 13*L*(u' - u_n) \quad \text{where} \quad u_n=0.19793943 \]
+\[ v \leftarrow 13*L*(v' - v_n) \quad \text{where} \quad v_n=0.46831096 \]
+On output $0 \leq L \leq 100$, $-134 \leq u \leq 220$, $-140 \leq v \leq 122$.
+
+The values are then converted to the destination data type:
+\begin{description}
+\item[8-bit images]
+\[L \leftarrow 255/100 L, u \leftarrow 255/354 (u + 134), v \leftarrow 255/256 (v + 140) \]
+\item[16-bit images] currently not supported
+\item[32-bit images] L, u, v are left as is
+\end{description}
+
+The above formulas for converting RGB to/from various color spaces have been taken from multiple sources on Web, primarily from
+the Ford98
+ at the Charles Poynton site.
+
+ \item Bayer $\rightarrow$ RGB (\texttt{CV\_BayerBG2BGR, CV\_BayerGB2BGR, CV\_BayerRG2BGR, CV\_BayerGR2BGR, CV\_BayerBG2RGB, CV\_BayerGB2RGB, CV\_BayerRG2RGB, CV\_BayerGR2RGB}) The Bayer pattern is widely used in CCD and CMOS cameras. It allows one to get color pictures from a single plane where R,G and B pixels (sensors of a particular component) are interleaved like this:
+
+\newcommand{\Rcell}{\color{red}R}
+\newcommand{\Gcell}{\color{green}G}
+\newcommand{\Bcell}{\color{blue}B}
+
+
+\[
+\definecolor{BackGray}{rgb}{0.8,0.8,0.8}
+\begin{array}{ c c c c c }
+\Rcell&\Gcell&\Rcell&\Gcell&\Rcell\\
+\Gcell&\colorbox{BackGray}{\Bcell}&\colorbox{BackGray}{\Gcell}&\Bcell&\Gcell\\
+\Rcell&\Gcell&\Rcell&\Gcell&\Rcell\\
+\Gcell&\Bcell&\Gcell&\Bcell&\Gcell\\
+\Rcell&\Gcell&\Rcell&\Gcell&\Rcell
+\end{array}
+\]
+
+The output RGB components of a pixel are interpolated from 1, 2 or
+4 neighbors of the pixel having the same color. There are several
+modifications of the above pattern that can be achieved by shifting
+the pattern one pixel left and/or one pixel up. The two letters
+$C_1$ and $C_2$
+in the conversion constants
+\texttt{CV\_Bayer} $ C_1 C_2 $ \texttt{2BGR}
+and
+\texttt{CV\_Bayer} $ C_1 C_2 $ \texttt{2RGB}
+indicate the particular pattern
+type - these are components from the second row, second and third
+columns, respectively. For example, the above pattern has very
+popular "BG" type.
+\end{itemize}
+
+\cvfunc{Threshold}\label{Threshold}
+
+Applies a fixed-level threshold to array elements.
+
+\cvexp{
+double cvThreshold(
+
+const CvArr* src,
+
+CvArr* dst,
+
+double threshold,
+
+double max\_value,
+
+int threshold\_type );
+}{CPP}{Threshold(src,dst,threshld,max\_value,threshold\_type)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{src}{Source array (single-channel, 8-bit of 32-bit floating point)}
+\cvarg{dst}{Destination array; must be either the same type as \texttt{src} or 8-bit}
+\cvarg{threshold}{Threshold value}
+\cvarg{max\_value}{Maximum value to use with \texttt{CV\_THRESH\_BINARY} and \texttt{CV\_THRESH\_BINARY\_INV} thresholding types}
+\cvarg{threshold\_type}{Thresholding type (see the discussion)}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvThreshold} applies fixed-level thresholding
+to a single-channel array. The function is typically used to get a
+bi-level (binary) image out of a grayscale image (\cross{CmpS} could
+be also used for this purpose) or for removing a noise, i.e. filtering
+out pixels with too small or too large values. There are several
+types of thresholding that the function supports that are determined by
+\texttt{threshold\_type}:
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{CV\_THRESH\_BINARY}{\[ \texttt{dst}(x,y) = \fork{\texttt{max\_value}}{if $\texttt{src}(x,y) > \texttt{threshold}$}{0}{otherwise} \]}
+\cvarg{CV\_THRESH\_BINARY\_INV}{\[ \texttt{dst}(x,y) = \fork{0}{if $\texttt{src}(x,y) > \texttt{threshold}$}{\texttt{max\_value}}{otherwise} \]}
+\cvarg{CV\_THRESH\_TRUNC}{\[ \texttt{dst}(x,y) = \fork{\texttt{threshold}}{if $\texttt{src}(x,y) > \texttt{threshold}$}{\texttt{src}(x,y)}{otherwise} \]}
+\cvarg{CV\_THRESH\_TOZERO}{\[ \texttt{dst}(x,y) = \fork{\texttt{src}(x,y)}{if $\texttt{src}(x,y) > \texttt{threshold}$}{0}{otherwise} \]}
+\cvarg{CV\_THRESH\_TOZERO\_INV}{\[ \texttt{dst}(x,y) = \fork{0}{if $\texttt{src}(x,y) > \texttt{threshold}$}{\texttt{src}(x,y)}{otherwise} \]}
+\end{description}
+
+Also, the special value \texttt{CV\_THRESH\_OTSU} may be combined with
+one of the above values. In this case the function determines the optimal threshold
+value using Otsu's algorithm and uses it instead of the specified \texttt{thresh}.
+The function returns the computed threshold value.
+Currently, Otsu's method is implemented only for 8-bit images.
+
+\includegraphics[width=0.5\textwidth]{pics/threshold.png}
+
+\cvfunc{AdaptiveThreshold}\label{AdaptiveThreshold}
+
+Applies an adaptive threshold to an array.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvAdaptiveThreshold(
+
+const CvArr* src,\par CvArr* dst,\par double max\_value,\par
+int adaptive\_method=CV\_ADAPTIVE\_THRESH\_MEAN\_C,\par
+int threshold\_type=CV\_THRESH\_BINARY,\par
+int block\_size=3,\par double param1=5 );
+
+}{CPP}{AdaptiveTheshold(src,dst,max\_value, adaptive\_method=CV\_ADAPTIVE\_THRESH\_MEAN\_C, threshold\_type=CV\_THRESH\_BINARY,block\_size=3,param1=5)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{src}{Source image}
+\cvarg{dst}{Destination image}
+\cvarg{max\_value}{Maximum value that is used with \texttt{CV\_THRESH\_BINARY} and \texttt{CV\_THRESH\_BINARY\_INV}}
+\cvarg{adaptive\_method}{Adaptive thresholding algorithm to use: \texttt{CV\_ADAPTIVE\_THRESH\_MEAN\_C} or \texttt{CV\_ADAPTIVE\_THRESH\_GAUSSIAN\_C} (see the discussion)}
+\cvarg{threshold\_type}{Thresholding type; must be one of
+\begin{description}
+ \cvarg{CV\_THRESH\_BINARY}{xxx}
+ \cvarg{CV\_THRESH\_BINARY\_INV}{xxx}
+\end{description}}
+\cvarg{block\_size}{The size of a pixel neighborhood that is used to calculate a threshold value for the pixel: 3, 5, 7, and so on}
+\cvarg{param1}{The method-dependent parameter. For the methods \texttt{CV\_ADAPTIVE\_THRESH\_MEAN\_C} and \texttt{CV\_ADAPTIVE\_THRESH\_GAUSSIAN\_C} it is a constant subtracted from the mean or weighted mean (see the discussion), though it may be negative}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvAdaptiveThreshold} transforms a grayscale image to a binary image according to the formulas:
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{CV\_THRESH\_BINARY}{\[ dst(x,y) = \fork{\texttt{max\_value}}{if $src(x,y) > T(x,y)$}{0}{otherwise} \]}
+\cvarg{CV\_THRESH\_BINARY\_INV}{\[ dst(x,y) = \fork{0}{if $src(x,y) > T(x,y)$}{\texttt{max\_value}}{otherwise} \]}
+\end{description}
+
+where $T(x,y)$ is a threshold calculated individually for each pixel.
+
+For the method \texttt{CV\_ADAPTIVE\_THRESH\_MEAN\_C} it is the mean of a $\texttt{block\_size} \times \texttt{block\_size}$ pixel neighborhood, minus \texttt{param1}.
+
+For the method \texttt{CV\_ADAPTIVE\_THRESH\_GAUSSIAN\_C} it is the weighted sum (gaussian) of a $\texttt{block\_size} \times \texttt{block\_size}$ pixel neighborhood, minus \texttt{param1}.
+
+\subsection{Pyramids and the Applications}
+
+\cvfunc{PyrDown}\label{PyrDown}
+
+Downsamples an image.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvPyrDown(\par const CvArr* src,\par CvArr* dst,\par int filter=CV\_GAUSSIAN\_5x5 );
+}{CPP}{PyrDown(src,dst,filter=CV\_GAUSSIAN\_5X5)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{src}{The source image}
+\cvarg{dst}{The destination image, should have a half as large width and height than the source}
+\cvarg{filter}{Type of the filter used for convolution; only \texttt{CV\_GAUSSIAN\_5x5} is currently supported}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvPyrDown} performs the downsampling step of the Gaussian pyramid decomposition. First it convolves the source image with the specified filter and then downsamples the image by rejecting even rows and columns.
+
+\cvfunc{PyrUp}\label{PyrUp}
+
+Upsamples an image.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvPyrUp(\par const CvArr* src,\par CvArr* dst,\par int filter=CV\_GAUSSIAN\_5x5 );
+}{CPP}{PyrUp(src,dst,filter=CV\_GAUSSIAN\_5X5)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{src}{The source image}
+\cvarg{dst}{The destination image, should have twice as large width and height than the source}
+\cvarg{filter}{Type of the filter used for convolution; only \texttt{CV\_GAUSSIAN\_5x5} is currently supported}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvPyrUp} performs the up-sampling step of the Gaussian pyramid decomposition. First it upsamples the source image by injecting even zero rows and columns and then convolves the result with the specified filter multiplied by 4 for interpolation. So the destination image is four times larger than the source image.
+
+\cvfunc{PyrSegmentation}\label{PyrSegmentation}
+
+Implements image segmentation by pyramids.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvPyrSegmentation(\par IplImage* src,\par IplImage* dst,\par
+ CvMemStorage* storage,\par CvSeq** comp,\par
+ int level,\par double threshold1,\par double threshold2 );
+}{CPP}{PyrSegmentation(src,dst,storage,level,threshold1,threshold2)-> comp}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{src}{The source image}
+\cvarg{dst}{The destination image}
+\cvarg{storage}{Storage; stores the resulting sequence of connected components}
+\cvarg{comp}{Pointer to the output sequence of the segmented components}
+\cvarg{level}{Maximum level of the pyramid for the segmentation}
+\cvarg{threshold1}{Error threshold for establishing the links}
+\cvarg{threshold2}{Error threshold for the segments clustering}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvPyrSegmentation} implements image segmentation by pyramids. The pyramid builds up to the level \texttt{level}. The links between any pixel \texttt{a} on level \texttt{i} and its candidate father pixel \texttt{b} on the adjacent level are established if
+$p(c(a),c(b))<threshold1$.
+After the connected components are defined, they are joined into several clusters.
+Any two segments A and B belong to the same cluster, if $p(c(A),c(B))<threshold2$.
+If the input image has only one channel, then $p(c^1,c^2)=|c^1-c^2|$.
+If the input image has three channels (red, green and blue), then
+\[
+ p(c^1,c^2) = 0.30 (c^1_r - c^2_r) +
+ 0.59 (c^1_g - c^2_g) +
+ 0.11 (c^1_b - c^2_b).
+\]
+
+There may be more than one connected component per a cluster. The images \texttt{src} and \texttt{dst} should be 8-bit single-channel or 3-channel images or equal size.
+
+\subsection{Connected Components and Contour Retrieval}
+
+\cvstruct{CvConnectedComp}\label{CvConnectedComp}
+
+Connected component.
+
+\begin{lstlisting}
+ typedef struct CvConnectedComp
+ {
+ double area; /* area of the segmented component */
+ CvScalar value; /* average color of the connected component */
+ CvRect rect; /* ROI of the segmented component */
+ CvSeq* contour; /* optional component boundary
+ (the contour might have child contours corresponding to the holes) */
+ } CvConnectedComp;
+
+\end{lstlisting}
+
+\cvfunc{FloodFill}\label{FloodFill}
+
+Fills a connected component with the given color.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvFloodFill(\par CvArr* image,\par CvPoint seed\_point,\par CvScalar new\_val,\par
+ CvScalar lo\_diff=cvScalarAll(0),\par CvScalar up\_diff=cvScalarAll(0),\par
+ CvConnectedComp* comp=NULL,\par int flags=4,\par CvArr* mask=NULL );
+
+}{CPP}{FloodFill(image,seed\_point,new\_val,lo\_diff=cvScalarAll(0),up\_diff=cvScalarAll(0),flags=4,mask=NULL)-> comp}
+
+\begin{lstlisting}
+#define CV_FLOODFILL_FIXED_RANGE (1 << 16)
+#define CV_FLOODFILL_MASK_ONLY (1 << 17)
+\end{lstlisting}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{image}{Input 1- or 3-channel, 8-bit or floating-point image. It is modified by the function unless the \texttt{CV\_FLOODFILL\_MASK\_ONLY} flag is set (see below)}
+\cvarg{seed\_point}{The starting point}
+\cvarg{new\_val}{New value of the repainted domain pixels}
+\cvarg{lo\_diff}{Maximal lower brightness/color difference between the currently observed pixel and one of its neighbors belonging to the component, or a seed pixel being added to the component. In the case of 8-bit color images it is a packed value}
+\cvarg{up\_diff}{Maximal upper brightness/color difference between the currently observed pixel and one of its neighbors belonging to the component, or a seed pixel being added to the component. In the case of 8-bit color images it is a packed value}
+\cvarg{comp}{Pointer to the structure that the function fills with the information about the repainted domain}
+\cvarg{flags}{The operation flags. Lower bits contain connectivity value, 4 (by default) or 8, used within the function. Connectivity determines which neighbors of a pixel are considered. Upper bits can be 0 or a combination of the following flags:
+\begin{description}
+ \cvarg{CV\_FLOODFILL\_FIXED\_RANGE}{if set, the difference between the current pixel and seed pixel is considered, otherwise the difference between neighbor pixels is considered (the range is floating)}
+ \cvarg{CV\_FLOODFILL\_MASK\_ONLY}{if set, the function does not fill the image (\texttt{new\_val} is ignored), but fills the mask (that must be non-NULL in this case)}
+\end{description}}
+\cvarg{mask}{Operation mask, should be a single-channel 8-bit image, 2 pixels wider and 2 pixels taller than \texttt{image}. If not NULL, the function uses and updates the mask, so the user takes responsibility of initializing the \texttt{mask} content. Floodfilling can't go across non-zero pixels in the mask, for example, an edge detector output can be used as a mask to stop filling at edges. It is possible to use the same mask in multiple calls to the function to make sure the filled area do not overlap. \textbf{Note}: because the mask is larger than the filled image, a pixel in \texttt{mask} that corresponds to $(x,y)$ pixel in \texttt{image} will have coordinates $(x+1,y+1)$ }
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvFloodFill} fills a connected component starting from the seed point with the specified color. The connectivity is determined by the closeness of pixel values. The pixel at $(x,y)$ is considered to belong to the repainted domain if:
+
+\begin{description}
+
+\item[grayscale image, floating range] \[
+src(x',y')-\texttt{lo\_diff} <= src(x,y) <= src(x',y')+\texttt{up\_diff} \]
+
+\item[grayscale image, fixed range] \[
+src(seed.x,seed.y)-\texttt{lo\_diff}<=src(x,y)<=src(seed.x,seed.y)+\texttt{up\_diff} \]
+
+\item[color image, floating range]
+\[ src(x',y')_r-\texttt{lo\_diff}_r<=src(x,y)_r<=src(x',y')_r+\texttt{up\_diff}_r \]
+\[ src(x',y')_g-\texttt{lo\_diff}_g<=src(x,y)_g<=src(x',y')_g+\texttt{up\_diff}_g \]
+\[ src(x',y')_b-\texttt{lo\_diff}_b<=src(x,y)_b<=src(x',y')_b+\texttt{up\_diff}_b \]
+
+\item[color image, fixed range]
+\[ src(seed.x,seed.y)_r-\texttt{lo\_diff}_r<=src(x,y)_r<=src(seed.x,seed.y)_r+\texttt{up\_diff}_r \]
+\[ src(seed.x,seed.y)_g-\texttt{lo\_diff}_g<=src(x,y)_g<=src(seed.x,seed.y)_g+\texttt{up\_diff}_g \]
+\[ src(seed.x,seed.y)_b-\texttt{lo\_diff}_b<=src(x,y)_b<=src(seed.x,seed.y)_b+\texttt{up\_diff}_b \]
+\end{description}
+
+where $src(x',y')$ is the value of one of pixel neighbors. That is, to be added to the connected component, a pixel's color/brightness should be close enough to the:
+\begin{itemize}
+ \item color/brightness of one of its neighbors that are already referred to the connected component in the case of floating range
+ \item color/brightness of the seed point in the case of fixed range.
+\end{itemize}
+
+\cvfunc{FindContours}\label{FindContours}
+
+Finds the contours in a binary image.
+
+\cvexp{
+int cvFindContours(\par CvArr* image,\par CvMemStorage* storage,\par CvSeq** first\_contour,\par
+ int header\_size=sizeof(CvContour),\par int mode=CV\_RETR\_LIST,\par
+ int method=CV\_CHAIN\_APPROX\_SIMPLE,\par CvPoint offset=cvPoint(0,0) );
+}{CPP}{FindContours(image, storage, mode=CV\_RETR\_LIST, method=CV\_CHAIN\_APPROX\_SIMPLE, offset=(0,0)) -> cvseq}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{image}{The source, an 8-bit single channel image. Non-zero pixels are treated as 1's, zero pixels remain 0's - the image is treated as \texttt{binary}. To get such a binary image from grayscale, one may use \cross{Threshold}, \cross{AdaptiveThreshold} or \cross{Canny}. The function modifies the source image's content}
+\cvarg{storage}{Container of the retrieved contours}
+\cvarg{first\_contour}{Output parameter, will contain the pointer to the first outer contour}
+\cvarg{header\_size}{Size of the sequence header, $\ge \texttt{sizeof(CvChain)}$ if $\texttt{method} =\texttt{CV\_CHAIN\_CODE}$,
+and $\ge \texttt{sizeof(CvContour)}$ otherwise}
+\cvarg{mode}{Retrieval mode
+\begin{description}
+ \cvarg{CV\_RETR\_EXTERNAL}{retrives only the extreme outer contours}
+ \cvarg{CV\_RETR\_LIST}{retrieves all of the contours and puts them in the list}
+ \cvarg{CV\_RETR\_CCOMP}{retrieves all of the contours and organizes them into a two-level hierarchy: on the top level are the external boundaries of the components, on the second level are the boundaries of the holes}
+ \cvarg{CV\_RETR\_TREE}{retrieves all of the contours and reconstructs the full hierarchy of nested contours}
+\end{description}}
+\cvarg{method}{Approximation method (for all the modes, except \texttt{CV\_LINK\_RUNS}, which uses built-in approximation)
+\begin{description}
+ \cvarg{CV\_CHAIN\_CODE}{outputs contours in the Freeman chain code. All other methods output polygons (sequences of vertices)}
+ \cvarg{CV\_CHAIN\_APPROX\_NONE}{translates all of the points from the chain code into points}
+ \cvarg{CV\_CHAIN\_APPROX\_SIMPLE}{compresses horizontal, vertical, and diagonal segments and leaves only their end points}
+ \cvarg{CV\_CHAIN\_APPROX\_TC89\_L1,CV\_CHAIN\_APPROX\_TC89\_KCOS}{applies one of the flavors of the Teh-Chin chain approximation algorithm.}
+ \cvarg{CV\_LINK\_RUNS}{uses a completely different contour retrieval algorithm by linking horizontal segments of 1's. Only the \texttt{CV\_RETR\_LIST} retrieval mode can be used with this method.}
+\end{description}}
+\cvarg{offset}{Offset, by which every contour point is shifted. This is useful if the contours are extracted from the image ROI and then they should be analyzed in the whole image context}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvFindContours} retrieves contours from the
+binary image and returns the number of retrieved contours. The
+pointer \texttt{first\_contour} is filled by the function. It will
+contain a pointer to the first outermost contour or \texttt{NULL} if no
+contours are detected (if the image is completely black). Other
+contours may be reached from \texttt{first\_contour} using the
+\texttt{h\_next} and \texttt{v\_next} links. The sample in the
+\cross{DrawContours} discussion shows how to use contours for
+connected component detection. Contours can be also used for shape
+analysis and object recognition - see \texttt{squares.c} in the OpenCV
+sample directory.
+
+\ifC
+\cvfunc{StartFindContours}\label{StartFindContours}
+
+Initializes the contour scanning process.
+
+\cvexp{
+CvContourScanner cvStartFindContours(\par CvArr* image,\par CvMemStorage* storage,\par
+ int header\_size=sizeof(CvContour),\par
+ int mode=CV\_RETR\_LIST,\par
+ int method=CV\_CHAIN\_APPROX\_SIMPLE,\par
+ CvPoint offset=cvPoint(0,\par0) );
+}{CPP}{PYTHON}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{image}{The 8-bit, single channel, binary source image}
+\cvarg{storage}{Container of the retrieved contours}
+\cvarg{header\_size}{Size of the sequence header, $>=sizeof(CvChain)$ if \texttt{method} =CV\_CHAIN\_CODE, and $>=sizeof(CvContour)$ otherwise}
+\cvarg{mode}{Retrieval mode; see \cross{FindContours}}
+\cvarg{method}{Approximation method. It has the same meaning in \cross{FindContours}, but \texttt{CV\_LINK\_RUNS} can not be used here}
+\cvarg{offset}{ROI offset; see \cross{FindContours}}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvStartFindContours} initializes and returns a pointer to the contour scanner. The scanner is used in \cross{FindNextContour} to retrieve the rest of the contours.
+
+\cvfunc{FindNextContour}\label{FindNextContour}
+
+Finds the next contour in the image.
+
+\cvexp{
+CvSeq* cvFindNextContour( \par CvContourScanner scanner );
+}{CPP}{PYTHON}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{scanner}{Contour scanner initialized by \cross{StartFindContours} }
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvFindNextContour} locates and retrieves the next contour in the image and returns a pointer to it. The function returns NULL if there are no more contours.
+
+\cvfunc{SubstituteContour}\label{SubstituteContour}
+
+Replaces a retrieved contour.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvSubstituteContour( \par CvContourScanner scanner, \par CvSeq* new\_contour );
+}{CPP}{PYTHON}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{scanner}{Contour scanner initialized by \cross{StartFindContours} }
+\cvarg{new\_contour}{Substituting contour}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvSubstituteContour} replaces the retrieved
+contour, that was returned from the preceding call of
+\cross{FindNextContour} and stored inside the contour scanner
+state, with the user-specified contour. The contour is inserted
+into the resulting structure, list, two-level hierarchy, or tree,
+depending on the retrieval mode. If the parameter \texttt{new\_contour}
+is \texttt{NULL}, the retrieved contour is not included in the
+resulting structure, nor are any of its children that might be added
+to this structure later.
+
+\cvfunc{EndFindContours}\label{EndFindContours}
+
+Finishes the scanning process.
+
+\cvexp{
+CvSeq* cvEndFindContours( \par CvContourScanner* scanner );
+}{CPP}{PYTHON}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{scanner}{Pointer to the contour scanner}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvEndFindContours} finishes the scanning process and returns a pointer to the first contour on the highest level.
+\fi
+
+\cvfunc{PyrMeanShiftFiltering}
+
+Does meanshift image segmentation
+
+\cvexp{
+
+void cvPyrMeanShiftFiltering( \par const CvArr* src, \par CvArr* dst,
+ \par double sp, \par double sr, \par int max\_level=1,
+ \par CvTermCriteria termcrit=\par cvTermCriteria(CV\_TERMCRIT\_ITER+CV\_TERMCRIT\_EPS,5,1));
+
+}{CPP}{PyrMeanShiftFiltering(src,dst,sp,sr,max\_level=1,
+ termcrit=\par (CV\_TERMCRIT\_ITER+CV\_TERMCRIT\_EPS,5,1))-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{src}{The source 8-bit, 3-channel image.}
+\cvarg{dst}{The destination image of the same format and the same size as the source.}
+\cvarg{sp}{The spatial window radius.}
+\cvarg{sr}{The color window radius.}
+\cvarg{max\_level}{Maximum level of the pyramid for the segmentation.}
+\cvarg{termcrit}{Termination criteria: when to stop meanshift iterations.}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvPyrMeanShiftFiltering} implements the filtering
+stage of meanshift segmentation, that is, the output of the function is
+the filtered "posterized" image with color gradients and fine-grain
+texture flattened. At every pixel $(X,Y)$ of the input image (or
+down-sized input image, see below) the function executes meanshift
+iterations, that is, the pixel $(X,Y)$ neighborhood in the joint
+space-color hyperspace is considered:
+
+\[
+(x,y): X-\texttt{sp} \le x \le X+\texttt{sp} , Y-\texttt{sp} \le y \le Y+\texttt{sp} , ||(R,G,B)-(r,g,b)|| \le \texttt{sr}
+\]
+
+where \texttt{(R,G,B)} and \texttt{(r,g,b)} are the vectors of color components at \texttt{(X,Y)} and \texttt{(x,y)}, respectively (though, the algorithm does not depend on the color space used, so any 3-component color space can be used instead). Over the neighborhood the average spatial value \texttt{(X',Y')} and average color vector \texttt{(R',G',B')} are found and they act as the neighborhood center on the next iteration:
+
+$(X,Y)~(X',Y'), (R,G,B)~(R',G',B').$
+
+After the iterations over, the color components of the initial pixel (that is, the pixel from where the iterations started) are set to the final value (average color at the last iteration):
+
+$I(X,Y) <- (R*,G*,B*)$
+
+Then $\texttt{max\_level}>0$ , the gaussian pyramid of
+$\texttt{max\_level}+1$ levels is built, and the above procedure is run
+on the smallest layer. After that, the results are propagated to the
+larger layer and the iterations are run again only on those pixels where
+the layer colors differ much ( $>\texttt{sr}$ ) from the lower-resolution
+layer, that is, the boundaries of the color regions are clarified. Note,
+that the results will be actually different from the ones obtained by
+running the meanshift procedure on the whole original image (i.e. when
+$\texttt{max\_level}==0$ ).
+
+\cvfunc{Watershed}
+
+Does watershed segmentation.
+
+\cvexp{
+
+void cvWatershed( const CvArr* image, CvArr* markers );
+
+
+}{CPP}{Watershed(image,markers)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{image}{The input 8-bit 3-channel image.}
+\cvarg{markers}{The input/output 32-bit single-channel image (map) of markers.}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvWatershed} implements one of the variants
+of watershed, non-parametric marker-based segmentation algorithm,
+described in \href{Meyer92}{[Meyer92]} Before passing the image to the
+function, user has to outline roughly the desired regions in the image
+\texttt{markers} with positive ($>0$) indices, i.e. every region is
+represented as one or more connected components with the pixel values
+1, 2, 3 etc. Those components will be "seeds" of the future image
+regions. All the other pixels in \texttt{markers}, which relation to the
+outlined regions is not known and should be defined by the algorithm,
+should be set to 0's. On the output of the function, each pixel in
+markers is set to one of values of the "seed" components, or to -1 at
+boundaries between the regions.
+
+Note, that it is not necessary that every two neighbor connected
+components are separated by a watershed boundary (-1's pixels), for
+example, in case when such tangent components exist in the initial
+marker image. Visual demonstration and usage example of the function
+can be found in OpenCV samples directory; see \texttt{watershed.cpp} demo.
+
+\subsection{Image and Contour moments}
+
+\cvfunc{Moments}\label{Moments}
+
+Calculates all of the moments up to the third order of a polygon or rasterized shape.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvMoments( \par const CvArr* arr,\par CvMoments* moments,\par int binary=0 );
+}{CPP}{Moments(arr) -> cvmoments}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{arr}{Image (1-channel or 3-channel with COI set) or polygon (CvSeq of points or a vector of points)}
+\cvarg{moments}{Pointer to returned moment's state structure}
+\cvarg{binary}{(For images only) If the flag is non-zero, all of the zero pixel values are treated as zeroes, and all of the others are treated as 1's}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvMoments} calculates spatial and central moments up to the third order and writes them to \texttt{moments}. The moments may then be used then to calculate the gravity center of the shape, its area, main axises and various shape characeteristics including 7 Hu invariants.
+
+\cvfunc{GetSpatialMoment}\label{GetSpatialMoment}
+
+Retrieves the spatial moment from the moment state structure.
+
+\cvexp{
+double cvGetSpatialMoment( \par CvMoments* moments, \par int x\_order, \par int y\_order );
+}{CPP}{GetSpatialMoment(cvmoments, x\_order, y\_order) -> double}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{moments}{The moment state, calculated by \cross{Moments}}
+\cvarg{x\_order}{x order of the retrieved moment, $\texttt{x\_order} >= 0$}
+\cvarg{y\_order}{y order of the retrieved moment, $\texttt{y\_order} >= 0$ and $\texttt{x\_order} + \texttt{y\_order} <= 3$}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvGetSpatialMoment} retrieves the spatial moment, which in the case of image moments is defined as:
+
+\[
+M_{x\_order, \, y\_order} = \sum_{x,y} (I(x,y) \cdot x^{x\_order} \cdot y^{y\_order})
+\]
+
+where $I(x,y)$ is the intensity of the pixel $(x, y)$.
+
+\cvfunc{GetCentralMoment}\label{GetCentralMoment}
+
+Retrieves the central moment from the moment state structure.
+
+\cvexp{
+double cvGetCentralMoment( \par CvMoments* moments,\par int x\_order,\par int y\_order );
+}{CPP}{GetCentralMoment(cvmoments, x\_order, y\_order) -> double}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{moments}{Pointer to the moment state structure}
+\cvarg{x\_order}{x order of the retrieved moment, $\texttt{x\_order} >= 0$}
+\cvarg{y\_order}{y order of the retrieved moment, $\texttt{y\_order} >= 0$ and $\texttt{x\_order} + \texttt{y\_order} <= 3$}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvGetCentralMoment} retrieves the central moment, which in the case of image moments is defined as:
+
+\[
+\mu_{x\_order, \, y\_order} = \sum_{x,y} (I(x,y) \cdot (x-x_c)^{x\_order} \cdot (y-y_c)^{y\_order})
+\]
+
+where $x_c,y_c$ are the coordinates of the gravity center:
+
+\[
+x_c=\frac{M_{10}}{M_{00}}, y_c=\frac{M_{01}}{M_{00}}
+\]
+
+\cvfunc{GetNormalizedCentralMoment}\label{GetNormalizedCentralMoment}
+
+Retrieves the normalized central moment from the moment state structure.
+
+\cvexp{
+double cvGetNormalizedCentralMoment( \par CvMoments* moments,\par int x\_order,\par int y\_order );
+}{CPP}{GetNormalizedCentralMoment(cvmoments, x\_order, y\_order) -> double}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{moments}{Pointer to the moment state structure}
+\cvarg{x\_order}{x order of the retrieved moment, $\texttt{x\_order} >= 0$}
+\cvarg{y\_order}{y order of the retrieved moment, $\texttt{y\_order} >= 0$ and $\texttt{x\_order} + \texttt{y\_order} <= 3$}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvGetNormalizedCentralMoment} retrieves the normalized central moment:
+
+\[
+\eta_{x\_order, \, y\_order} = \frac{\mu_{x\_order, \, y\_order}}{M_{00}^{(y\_order+x\_order)/2+1}}
+\]
+
+\cvfunc{GetHuMoments}\label{GetHuMoments}
+
+Calculates the seven Hu invariants.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvGetHuMoments( CvMoments* moments, CvHuMoments* hu\_moments );
+}{CPP}{GetHuMoments(cvmoments) -> (h1, h2, h3, h4, h5, h5, h7)}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{moments}{Pointer to the moment state structure}
+\cvC{\cvarg{hu\_moments}{Pointer to the Hu moments structure}}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvGetHuMoments} calculates the seven Hu invariants that are defined as:
+
+\[ \begin{array}{l}
+h1=\eta_{20}+\eta_{02}\\
+h2=(\eta_{20}-\eta_{02})^{2}+4\eta_{11}^{2}\\
+h3=(\eta_{30}-3\eta_{12})^{2}+ (3\eta_{21}-\eta_{03})^{2}\\
+h4=(\eta_{30}+\eta_{12})^{2}+ (\eta_{21}+\eta_{03})^{2}\\
+h5=(\eta_{30}-3\eta_{12})(\eta_{30}+\eta_{12})[(\eta_{30}+\eta_{12})^{2}-3(\eta_{21}+\eta_{03})^{2}]+(3\eta_{21}-\eta_{03})(\eta_{21}+\eta_{03})[3(\eta_{30}+\eta_{12})^{2}-(\eta_{21}+\eta_{03})^{2}]\\
+h6=(\eta_{20}-\eta_{02})[(\eta_{30}+\eta_{12})^{2}- (\eta_{21}+\eta_{03})^{2}]+4\eta_{11}(\eta_{30}+\eta_{12})(\eta_{21}+\eta_{03})\\
+h7=(3\eta_{21}-\eta_{03})(\eta_{21}+\eta_{03})[3(\eta_{30}+\eta_{12})^{2}-(\eta_{21}+\eta_{03})^{2}]-(\eta_{30}-3\eta_{12})(\eta_{21}+\eta_{03})[3(\eta_{30}+\eta_{12})^{2}-(\eta_{21}+\eta_{03})^{2}]\\
+\end{array}
+\]
+
+where $\eta_{i,j}$ are the normalized central moments of the $2^{nd}$ and $3^{rd}$ orders.
+These values are proved to be invariants to the image scale, rotation, and reflection except the seventh one, whose sign is changed by reflection.
+
+\subsection{Special Image Transforms}
+
+\cvfunc{HoughLines2}\label{HoughLines2}
+
+Finds lines in a binary image using a Hough transform.
+
+\cvexp{
+CvSeq* cvHoughLines2( \par CvArr* image,\par void* line\_storage,\par int method,\par double rho,\par double theta,\par int threshold,\par double param1=0,\par double param2=0 );
+}{CPP}{HoughLines2(image,storage,method,rho,theta,threshold,param1=0,parma2=0)-> lines}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{image}{The 8-bit, single-channel, binary source image. In the case of a probabilistic method, the image is modified by the function}
+\cvarg{line\_storage}{The storage for the lines that are detected. It can
+be a memory storage (in this case a sequence of lines is created in
+the storage and returned by the function) or single row/single column
+matrix (CvMat*) of a particular type (see below) to which the lines'
+parameters are written. The matrix header is modified by the function
+so its \texttt{cols} or \texttt{rows} will contain the number of lines
+detected. If \texttt{line\_storage} is a matrix and the actual number
+of lines exceeds the matrix size, the maximum possible number of lines
+is returned (in the case of standard hough transform the lines are sorted
+by the accumulator value)}
+\cvarg{method}{The Hough transform variant, one of the following:
+\begin{description}
+ \cvarg{CV\_HOUGH\_STANDARD}{classical or standard Hough transform. Every line is represented by two floating-point numbers $(\rho, \theta)$, where $\rho$ is a distance between (0,0) point and the line, and $\theta$ is the angle between x-axis and the normal to the line. Thus, the matrix must be (the created sequence will be) of \texttt{CV\_32FC2} type}
+ \cvarg{CV\_HOUGH\_PROBABILISTIC}{probabilistic Hough transform (more efficient in case if picture contains a few long linear segments). It returns line segments rather than the whole line. Each segment is represented by starting and ending points, and the matrix must be (the created sequence will be) of \texttt{CV\_32SC4} type}
+ \cvarg{CV\_HOUGH\_MULTI\_SCALE}{multi-scale variant of the classical Hough transform. The lines are encoded the same way as \texttt{CV\_HOUGH\_STANDARD}}
+\end{description}}
+\cvarg{rho}{Distance resolution in pixel-related units}
+\cvarg{theta}{Angle resolution measured in radians}
+\cvarg{threshold}{Threshold parameter. A line is returned by the function if the corresponding accumulator value is greater than \texttt{threshold}}
+\cvarg{param1}{The first method-dependent parameter:
+\begin{itemize}
+ \item For the classical Hough transform it is not used (0).
+ \item For the probabilistic Hough transform it is the minimum line length.
+ \item For the multi-scale Hough transform it is the divisor for the distance resolution $\rho$. (The coarse distance resolution will be $\rho$ and the accurate resolution will be $(\rho / \texttt{param1})$).
+\end{itemize}}
+\cvarg{param2}{The second method-dependent parameter:
+\begin{itemize}
+ \item For the classical Hough transform it is not used (0).
+ \item For the probabilistic Hough transform it is the maximum gap between line segments lying on the same line to treat them as a single line segment (i.e. to join them).
+ \item For the multi-scale Hough transform it is the divisor for the angle resolution $\theta$. (The coarse angle resolution will be $\theta$ and the accurate resolution will be $(\theta / \texttt{param2})$).
+\end{itemize}}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvHoughLines2} implements a few variants of the Hough transform for line detection.
+
+% ===== Example. Detecting lines with Hough transform. =====
+\begin{lstlisting}
+/* This is a standalone program. Pass an image name as a first parameter
+of the program. Switch between standard and probabilistic Hough transform
+by changing "#if 1" to "#if 0" and back */
+#include <cv.h>
+#include <highgui.h>
+#include <math.h>
+
+int main(int argc, char** argv)
+{
+ IplImage* src;
+ if( argc == 2 && (src=cvLoadImage(argv[1], 0))!= 0)
+ {
+ IplImage* dst = cvCreateImage( cvGetSize(src), 8, 1 );
+ IplImage* color_dst = cvCreateImage( cvGetSize(src), 8, 3 );
+ CvMemStorage* storage = cvCreateMemStorage(0);
+ CvSeq* lines = 0;
+ int i;
+ cvCanny( src, dst, 50, 200, 3 );
+ cvCvtColor( dst, color_dst, CV_GRAY2BGR );
+#if 1
+ lines = cvHoughLines2( dst,
+ storage,
+ CV_HOUGH_STANDARD,
+ 1,
+ CV_PI/180,
+ 100,
+ 0,
+ 0 );
+
+ for( i = 0; i < MIN(lines->total,100); i++ )
+ {
+ float* line = (float*)cvGetSeqElem(lines,i);
+ float rho = line[0];
+ float theta = line[1];
+ CvPoint pt1, pt2;
+ double a = cos(theta), b = sin(theta);
+ double x0 = a*rho, y0 = b*rho;
+ pt1.x = cvRound(x0 + 1000*(-b));
+ pt1.y = cvRound(y0 + 1000*(a));
+ pt2.x = cvRound(x0 - 1000*(-b));
+ pt2.y = cvRound(y0 - 1000*(a));
+ cvLine( color_dst, pt1, pt2, CV_RGB(255,0,0), 3, 8 );
+ }
+#else
+ lines = cvHoughLines2( dst,
+ storage,
+ CV_HOUGH_PROBABILISTIC,
+ 1,
+ CV_PI/180,
+ 80,
+ 30,
+ 10 );
+ for( i = 0; i < lines->total; i++ )
+ {
+ CvPoint* line = (CvPoint*)cvGetSeqElem(lines,i);
+ cvLine( color_dst, line[0], line[1], CV_RGB(255,0,0), 3, 8 );
+ }
+#endif
+ cvNamedWindow( "Source", 1 );
+ cvShowImage( "Source", src );
+
+ cvNamedWindow( "Hough", 1 );
+ cvShowImage( "Hough", color_dst );
+
+ cvWaitKey(0);
+ }
+}
+\end{lstlisting}
+
+This is the sample picture the function parameters have been tuned for:
+
+\includegraphics[width=0.5\textwidth]{pics/building.jpg}
+
+And this is the output of the above program in the case of probabilistic Hough transform (\texttt{\#if 0} case):
+
+\includegraphics[width=0.5\textwidth]{pics/houghp.png}
+
+\cvfunc{HoughCircles}\label{HoughCircles}
+
+Finds circles in a grayscale image using a Hough transform.
+
+\cvexp{
+CvSeq* cvHoughCircles( \par CvArr* image,\par void* circle\_storage,\par int method,\par double dp,\par double min\_dist,\par double param1=100,\par double param2=100,\par int min\_radius=0,\par int max\_radius=0 );
+}{CPP}{HoughCircles(image,circle\_storage,method,dp,min\_dist,param1=100,param2=100,min\_radius=0,max\_radius=0)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{image}{The 8-bit, single-channel, grayscale source image}
+\cvarg{circle\_storage}{The storage for the circles detected. It can be a memory storage (in this case a sequence of circles is created in the storage and returned by the function) or single row/single column matrix (CvMat*) of type \texttt{CV\_32FC3}, to which the circles' parameters are written. The matrix header is modified by the function so its \texttt{cols} or \texttt{rows} will contain the number of lines detected. If \texttt{circle\_storage} is a matrix and the actual number of lines exceeds the matrix size, the maximum possible number of circles is returned. Every circle is encoded as 3 floating-point numbers: center coordinates (x,y) and the radius}
+\cvarg{method}{Currently, the only implemented method is \texttt{CV\_HOUGH\_GRADIENT}, which is basically 21HT, described in Yuen03.}
+\cvarg{dp}{Resolution of the accumulator used to detect the centers of the circles. For example, if it is 1, the accumulator will have the same resolution as the input image, if it is 2 - accumulator will have half as big width and height, etc}
+\cvarg{min\_dist}{Minimum distance between the centers of the detected circles. If the parameter is too small, multiple neighbor circles may be falsely detected in addition to a true one. If it is too large, some circles may be missed}
+\cvarg{param1}{The first method-specific parameter. in the case of \texttt{CV\_HOUGH\_GRADIENT} it is the higher threshold of the two passed to \cross{Canny} edge detector (the lower one will be twice smaller)}
+\cvarg{param2}{The second method-specific parameter. in the case of \texttt{CV\_HOUGH\_GRADIENT} it is the accumulator threshold at the center detection stage. theThe smaller it is, the more false circles may be detected. Circles, corresponding to the larger accumulator values, will be returned first}
+\cvarg{min\_radius}{Minimum circle radius}
+\cvarg{max\_radius}{Maximum circle radius}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvHoughCircles} finds circles in a grayscale image using some modification of Hough transform.
+
+% ===== Example. Detecting circles with Hough transform. =====
+\begin{lstlisting}
+#include <cv.h>
+#include <highgui.h>
+#include <math.h>
+
+int main(int argc, char** argv)
+{
+ IplImage* img;
+ if( argc == 2 && (img=cvLoadImage(argv[1], 1))!= 0)
+ {
+ IplImage* gray = cvCreateImage( cvGetSize(img), 8, 1 );
+ CvMemStorage* storage = cvCreateMemStorage(0);
+ cvCvtColor( img, gray, CV_BGR2GRAY );
+ // smooth it, otherwise a lot of false circles may be detected
+ cvSmooth( gray, gray, CV_GAUSSIAN, 9, 9 );
+ CvSeq* circles = cvHoughCircles( gray,
+ storage,
+ CV_HOUGH_GRADIENT,
+ 2,
+ gray->height/4,
+ 200,
+ 100 );
+ int i;
+ for( i = 0; i < circles->total; i++ )
+ {
+ float* p = (float*)cvGetSeqElem( circles, i );
+ cvCircle( img,
+ cvPoint(cvRound(p[0]),cvRound(p[1])),
+ 3,
+ CV_RGB(0,255,0),
+ -1, 8, 0 );
+ cvCircle( img,
+ cvPoint(cvRound(p[0]),cvRound(p[1])),
+ cvRound(p[2]),
+ CV_RGB(255,0,0),
+ 3, 8, 0 );
+ }
+ cvNamedWindow( "circles", 1 );
+ cvShowImage( "circles", img );
+ }
+ return 0;
+}
+\end{lstlisting}
+
+\cvfunc{DistTransform}\label{DistTransform}
+
+Calculates the distance to the closest zero pixel for all non-zero pixels of the source image.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvDistTransform( \par const CvArr* src,\par CvArr* dst,\par int distance\_type=CV\_DIST\_L2,\par int mask\_size=3,\par const float* mask=NULL,\par CvArr* labels=NULL );
+}{CPP}{DistTransform(src,dst,distance\_type=CV\_DIST\_L2,mask\_size=3,mask={NULL,0},labels=NULL)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{src}{8-bit, single-channel (binary) source image}
+\cvarg{dst}{Output image with calculated distances (32-bit floating-point, single-channel)}
+\cvarg{distance\_type}{Type of distance; can be \texttt{CV\_DIST\_L1, CV\_DIST\_L2, CV\_DIST\_C} or \texttt{CV\_DIST\_USER}}
+\cvarg{mask\_size}{Size of the distance transform mask; can be 3 or 5. in the case of \texttt{CV\_DIST\_L1} or \texttt{CV\_DIST\_C} the parameter is forced to 3, because a $3\times 3$ mask gives the same result as a $5\times 5 $ yet it is faster}
+\cvarg{mask}{User-defined mask in the case of a user-defined distance, it consists of 2 numbers (horizontal/vertical shift cost, diagonal shift cost) in the case ofa $3\times 3$ mask and 3 numbers (horizontal/vertical shift cost, diagonal shift cost, knight's move cost) in the case of a $5\times 5$ mask}
+\cvarg{labels}{The optional output 2d array of integer type labels, the same size as \texttt{src} and \texttt{dst}}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvDistTransform} calculates the approximated
+distance from every binary image pixel to the nearest zero pixel.
+For zero pixels the function sets the zero distance, for others it
+finds the shortest path consisting of basic shifts: horizontal,
+vertical, diagonal or knight's move (the latest is available for a
+$5\times 5$ mask). The overall distance is calculated as a sum of these
+basic distances. Because the distance function should be symmetric,
+all of the horizontal and vertical shifts must have the same cost (that
+is denoted as \texttt{a}), all the diagonal shifts must have the
+same cost (denoted \texttt{b}), and all knight's moves must have
+the same cost (denoted \texttt{c}). For \texttt{CV\_DIST\_C} and
+\texttt{CV\_DIST\_L1} types the distance is calculated precisely,
+whereas for \texttt{CV\_DIST\_L2} (Euclidian distance) the distance
+can be calculated only with some relative error (a $5\times 5$ mask
+gives more accurate results), OpenCV uses the values suggested in
+\cite{Borgefors86}:
+
+
+\begin{tabular}{| c | c | c |}
+\hline
+\texttt{CV\_DIST\_C} & $(3\times 3)$ & a = 1, b = 1\\ \hline
+\texttt{CV\_DIST\_L1} & $(3\times 3)$ & a = 1, b = 2\\ \hline
+\texttt{CV\_DIST\_L2} & $(3\times 3)$ & a=0.955, b=1.3693\\ \hline
+\texttt{CV\_DIST\_L2} & $(5\times 5)$ & a=1, b=1.4, c=2.1969\\ \hline
+\end{tabular}
+
+And below are samples of the distance field (black (0) pixel is in the middle of white square) in the case of a user-defined distance:
+
+User-defined $3 \times 3$ mask (a=1, b=1.5)
+
+\begin{tabular}{| c | c | c | c | c | c | c |}
+\hline
+4.5 & 4 & 3.5 & 3 & 3.5 & 4 & 4.5\\ \hline
+4 & 3 & 2.5 & 2 & 2.5 & 3 & 4\\ \hline
+3.5 & 2.5 & 1.5 & 1 & 1.5 & 2.5 & 3.5\\ \hline
+3 & 2 & 1 & & 1 & 2 & 3\\ \hline
+3.5 & 2.5 & 1.5 & 1 & 1.5 & 2.5 & 3.5\\ \hline
+4 & 3 & 2.5 & 2 & 2.5 & 3 & 4\\ \hline
+4.5 & 4 & 3.5 & 3 & 3.5 & 4 & 4.5\\ \hline
+\end{tabular}
+
+User-defined $5 \times 5$ mask (a=1, b=1.5, c=2)
+
+\begin{tabular}{| c | c | c | c | c | c | c |}
+\hline
+4.5 & 3.5 & 3 & 3 & 3 & 3.5 & 4.5\\ \hline
+3.5 & 3 & 2 & 2 & 2 & 3 & 3.5\\ \hline
+3 & 2 & 1.5 & 1 & 1.5 & 2 & 3\\ \hline
+3 & 2 & 1 & & 1 & 2 & 3\\ \hline
+3 & 2 & 1.5 & 1 & 1.5 & 2 & 3\\ \hline
+3.5 & 3 & 2 & 2 & 2 & 3 & 3.5\\ \hline
+4 & 3.5 & 3 & 3 & 3 & 3.5 & 4\\ \hline
+\end{tabular}
+
+
+Typically, for a fast, coarse distance estimation \texttt{CV\_DIST\_L2},
+a $3\times 3$ mask is used, and for a more accurate distance estimation
+\texttt{CV\_DIST\_L2}, a $5\times 5$ mask is used.
+
+When the output parameter \texttt{labels} is not \texttt{NULL}, for
+every non-zero pixel the function also finds the nearest connected
+component consisting of zero pixels. The connected components
+themselves are found as contours in the beginning of the function.
+
+In this mode the processing time is still O(N), where N is the number of
+pixels. Thus, the function provides a very fast way to compute approximate
+Voronoi diagram for the binary image.
+
+\cvfunc{Inpaint}
+
+Inpaints the selected region in the image.
+
+\cvexp{
+
+void cvInpaint( \par const CvArr* src, \par const CvArr* mask, \par CvArr* dst,
+ \par double inpaintRadius, \par int flags);
+
+}{CPP}{Inpaint(src,mask,dst,inpaintRadius,flags) -> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{src}{The input 8-bit 1-channel or 3-channel image.}
+\cvarg{mask}{The inpainting mask, 8-bit 1-channel image. Non-zero pixels indicate the area that needs to be inpainted.}
+\cvarg{dst}{The output image of the same format and the same size as input.}
+\cvarg{inpaintRadius}{The radius of circlular neighborhood of each point inpainted that is considered by the algorithm.}
+\cvarg{flags}{The inpainting method, one of the following:
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{CV\_INPAINT\_NS}{Navier-Stokes based method.}
+\cvarg{CV\_INPAINT\_TELEA}{The method by Alexandru Telea \href{\#Telea04}{[Telea04]}}
+\end{description}}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvInpaint} reconstructs the selected image area from the pixel near the area boundary. The function may be used to remove dust and scratches from a scanned photo, or to remove undesirable objects from still images or video.
+
+
+\subsection{Histograms}
+
+\cvstruct{CvHistogram}\label{CvHistogram}
+
+Multi-dimensional histogram.
+
+\begin{lstlisting}
+typedef struct CvHistogram
+{
+ int type;
+ CvArr* bins;
+ float thresh[CV_MAX_DIM][2]; /* for uniform histograms */
+ float** thresh2; /* for non-uniform histograms */
+ CvMatND mat; /* embedded matrix header for array histograms */
+}
+CvHistogram;
+\end{lstlisting}
+
+\cvfunc{CreateHist}\label{CreateHist}
+
+Creates a histogram.
+
+\cvexp{
+CvHistogram* cvCreateHist(\par int dims,\par int* sizes,\par int type,\par float** ranges=NULL,\par int uniform=1 );
+}{CPP}{CreateHist(dims, type, ranges, uniform = 1) -> hist}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvC{\cvarg{dims}{Number of histogram dimensions}
+\cvarg{sizes}{Array of the histogram dimension sizes}}
+\cvPy{\cvarg{dims}{for an N-dimensional histogram, list of length N giving the size of each dimension}}
+\cvarg{type}{Histogram representation format: \texttt{CV\_HIST\_ARRAY} means that the histogram data is represented as a multi-dimensional dense array CvMatND; \texttt{CV\_HIST\_SPARSE} means that histogram data is represented as a multi-dimensional sparse array CvSparseMat}
+\cvarg{ranges}{Array of ranges for the histogram bins. Its meaning depends on the \texttt{uniform} parameter value. The ranges are used for when the histogram is calculated or backprojected to determine which histogram bin corresponds to which value/tuple of values from the input image(s)}
+\cvarg{uniform}{Uniformity flag; if not 0, the histogram has evenly
+spaced bins and for every $0<=i<cDims$ \texttt{ranges[i]}
+is an array of two numbers: lower and upper boundaries for the i-th
+histogram dimension.
+The whole range [lower,upper] is then split
+into \texttt{dims[i]} equal parts to determine the \texttt{i-th} input
+tuple value ranges for every histogram bin. And if \texttt{uniform=0},
+then \texttt{i-th} element of \texttt{ranges} array contains
+\texttt{dims[i]+1} elements:
+$\texttt{lower}_0, \texttt{upper}_0,
+\texttt{lower}_1, \texttt{upper}_1 = \texttt{lower}_2,
+...
+\texttt{upper}_{dims[i]-1} $
+where
+$\texttt{lower}_j$ and $\texttt{upper}_j$
+are lower and upper
+boundaries of \texttt{i-th} input tuple value for \texttt{j-th}
+bin, respectively. In either case, the input values that are beyond
+the specified range for a histogram bin are not counted by
+\cross{CalcHist} and filled with 0 by \cross{CalcBackProject}}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{CreateHist} creates a histogram of the specified
+size and returns a pointer to the created histogram. If the array
+\texttt{ranges} is 0, the histogram bin ranges must be specified later
+via the function \cross{SetHistBinRanges}. Though \cross{CalcHist}
+and \cross{CalcBackProject} may process 8-bit images without setting
+bin ranges, they assume thy are equally spaced in 0 to 255 bins.
+
+\ifC
+\cvfunc{SetHistBinRanges}\label{SetHistBinRanges}
+
+Sets the bounds of the histogram bins.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvSetHistBinRanges( \par CvHistogram* hist,\par float** ranges,\par int uniform=1 );
+}{CPP}{PYTHON}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{hist}{Histogram}
+\cvarg{ranges}{Array of bin ranges arrays, see \cross{CreateHist}}
+\cvarg{uniform}{Uniformity flag, see \cross{CreateHist}}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvSetHistBinRanges} is a stand-alone function for setting bin ranges in the histogram. For a more detailed description of the parameters \texttt{ranges} and \texttt{uniform} see the \cross{CalcHist} function, that can initialize the ranges as well. Ranges for the histogram bins must be set before the histogram is calculated or the backproject of the histogram is calculated.
+\fi
+
+\ifC
+\cvfunc{ReleaseHist}\label{ReleaseHist}
+
+Releases the histogram.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvReleaseHist( CvHistogram** hist );
+}{CPP}{PYTHON}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{hist}{Double pointer to the released histogram}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvReleaseHist} releases the histogram (header and the data). The pointer to the histogram is cleared by the function. If \texttt{*hist} pointer is already \texttt{NULL}, the function does nothing.
+\fi
+
+\cvfunc{ClearHist}\label{ClearHist}
+
+Clears the histogram.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvClearHist( CvHistogram* hist );
+}{CPP}{ClearHist(hist)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{hist}{Histogram}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{ClearHist} sets all of the histogram bins to 0 in the case of a dense histogram and removes all histogram bins in the case of a sparse array.
+
+\ifC
+\cvfunc{MakeHistHeaderForArray}\label{MakeHistHeaderForArray}
+
+Makes a histogram out of an array.
+
+\cvexp{
+CvHistogram* cvMakeHistHeaderForArray( \par int dims,\par int* sizes,\par CvHistogram* hist,\par float* data,\par float** ranges=NULL,\par int uniform=1 );
+}{CPP}{PYTHON}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{dims}{Number of histogram dimensions}
+\cvarg{sizes}{Array of the histogram dimension sizes}
+\cvarg{hist}{The histogram header initialized by the function}
+\cvarg{data}{Array that will be used to store histogram bins}
+\cvarg{ranges}{Histogram bin ranges, see \cross{CreateHist}}
+\cvarg{uniform}{Uniformity flag, see \cross{CreateHist}}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvMakeHistHeaderForArray} initializes the histogram, whose header and bins are allocated by th user. \cross{ReleaseHist} does not need to be called afterwards. Only dense histograms can be initialized this way. The function returns \texttt{hist}.
+\fi
+
+\ifplastex
+\cvfunc{QueryHistValue\_1D} \cvexp{float cvQueryHistValue\_1D( CvHistogram *hist, int idx0)}{}{}
+\cvfunc{QueryHistValue\_2D} \cvexp{float cvQueryHistValue\_2D( CvHistogram *hist, int idx0, int idx1)}{}{}
+\cvfunc{QueryHistValue\_3D} \cvexp{float cvQueryHistValue\_3D( CvHistogram *hist, int idx0, int idx1, int idx2)}{}{}
+\cvfunc{QueryHistValue\_nD} Queries the value of the histogram bin. \cvexp{float cvQueryHistValue\_nD( CvHistogram *hist, int idx[])}{}{}
+\else
+\cvfunc{QueryHistValue\_nD}\label{QueryHistValue_nD}
+
+Queries the value of the histogram bin.
+
+\begin{lstlisting}
+\#define cvQueryHistValue\_1D( hist, idx0 ) \
+ cvGetReal1D( (hist)->bins, (idx0) )
+\#define cvQueryHistValue\_2D( hist, idx0, idx1 ) \
+ cvGetReal2D( (hist)->bins, (idx0), (idx1) )
+\#define cvQueryHistValue\_3D( hist, idx0, idx1, idx2 ) \
+ cvGetReal3D( (hist)->bins, (idx0), (idx1), (idx2) )
+\#define cvQueryHistValue\_nD( hist, idx ) \
+ cvGetRealND( (hist)->bins, (idx) )
+\end{lstlisting}
+\fi
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{hist}{Histogram}
+\cvarg{idx0, idx1, idx2, idx3}{Indices of the bin}
+\cvarg{idx}{Array of indices}
+\end{description}
+
+The macros \texttt{QueryHistValue\_nD} return the value of the specified bin of the 1D, 2D, 3D or N-D histogram. In the case of a sparse histogram the function returns 0, if the bin is not present in the histogram no new bin is created.
+
+\ifplastex
+\cvfunc{GetHistValue\_1D} \cvexp{float* cvGetHistValue\_1D( CvHistogram *hist, int idx0);}{}{}
+\cvfunc{GetHistValue\_2D} \cvexp{float* cvGetHistValue\_2D( CvHistogram *hist, int idx0, int idx1);}{}{}
+\cvfunc{GetHistValue\_3D} \cvexp{float* cvGetHistValue\_3D( CvHistogram *hist, int idx0, int idx1, int idx2);}{}{}
+\cvfunc{GetHistValue\_nD} Returns a pointer to the histogram bin. \cvexp{float* cvGetHistValue\_nD( CvHistogram *hist, int idx[]);}{}{}
+\else
+\cvfunc{GetHistValue\_nD}\label{GetHistValue_nD}
+
+Returns a pointer to the histogram bin.
+
+\begin{lstlisting}
+\#define cvGetHistValue\_1D( hist, idx0 ) \
+ ((float*)(cvPtr1D( (hist)->bins, (idx0), 0 ))
+\#define cvGetHistValue\_2D( hist, idx0, idx1 ) \
+ ((float*)(cvPtr2D( (hist)->bins, (idx0), (idx1), 0 )))
+\#define cvGetHistValue\_3D( hist, idx0, idx1, idx2 ) \
+ ((float*)(cvPtr3D( (hist)->bins, (idx0), (idx1), (idx2), 0 )))
+\#define cvGetHistValue\_nD( hist, idx ) \
+ ((float*)(cvPtrND( (hist)->bins, (idx), 0 )))
+\end{lstlisting}
+\fi
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{hist}{Histogram}
+\cvarg{idx0, idx1, idx2, idx3}{Indices of the bin}
+\cvarg{idx}{Array of indices}
+\end{description}
+
+The macros \texttt{GetHistValue} return a pointer to the specified bin of the 1D, 2D, 3D or N-D histogram. In the case of a sparse histogram the function creates a new bin and sets it to 0, unless it exists already.
+
+
+\cvfunc{GetMinMaxHistValue}\label{GetMinMaxHistValue}
+
+Finds the minimum and maximum histogram bins.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvGetMinMaxHistValue( \par const CvHistogram* hist,\par float* min\_value,\par float* max\_value,\par int* min\_idx=NULL,\par int* max\_idx=NULL );
+
+}{CPP}{GetMinMaxHistValue(hist)-> min\_val,max\_val,min\_loc,max\_loc}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{hist}{Histogram}
+\cvarg{min\_value}{Pointer to the minimum value of the histogram}
+\cvarg{max\_value}{Pointer to the maximum value of the histogram}
+\cvarg{min\_idx}{Pointer to the array of coordinates for the minimum}
+\cvarg{max\_idx}{Pointer to the array of coordinates for the maximum}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvGetMinMaxHistValue} finds the minimum and
+maximum histogram bins and their positions. All of output arguments are
+optional. Among several extremas with the same value the ones with the
+minimum index (in lexicographical order) are returned. In the case of several maximums
+or minimums, the earliest in lexicographical order (extrema locations)
+is returned.
+
+\cvfunc{NormalizeHist}\label{NormalizeHist}
+
+Normalizes the histogram.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvNormalizeHist( CvHistogram* hist, double factor );
+}{CPP}{NormalizeHist(hist,factor)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{hist}{Pointer to the histogram}
+\cvarg{factor}{Normalization factor}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvNormalizeHist} normalizes the histogram bins by scaling them, such that the sum of the bins becomes equal to \texttt{factor}.
+
+\cvfunc{ThreshHist}\label{ThreshHist}
+
+Thresholds the histogram.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvThreshHist( CvHistogram* hist, double threshold );
+}{CPP}{ThreshHist(hist,threshold)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{hist}{Pointer to the histogram}
+\cvarg{threshold}{Threshold level}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvThreshHist} clears histogram bins that are below the specified threshold.
+
+\cvfunc{CompareHist}\label{CompareHist}
+
+Compares two dense histograms.
+
+\cvexp{
+double cvCompareHist( \par const CvHistogram* hist1,\par const CvHistogram* hist2,\par int method );
+}{CPP}{CompareHist(hist1,hist2,method)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{hist1}{The first dense histogram}
+\cvarg{hist2}{The second dense histogram}
+\cvarg{method}{Comparison method, one of the following:
+\begin{description}
+ \cvarg{CV\_COMP\_CORREL}{Correlation}
+ \cvarg{CV\_COMP\_CHISQR}{Chi-Square}
+ \cvarg{CV\_COMP\_INTERSECT}{Intersection}
+ \cvarg{CV\_COMP\_BHATTACHARYYA}{Bhattacharyya distance}
+\end{description}}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{CompareHist} compares two dense histograms using the specified method ($H_1$ denotes the first histogram, $H_2$ the second):
+
+\begin{description}
+\item[Correlation (method=CV\_COMP\_CORREL)]
+\[
+d(H_1,H_2) = \frac
+{\sum_I (H'_1(I) \cdot H'_2(I))}
+{\sqrt{\sum_I(H'_1(I)^2) \cdot \sum_I(H'_2(I)^2)}}
+\]
+where
+\[
+H'_k(I) = \frac{H_k(I) - 1}{N \cdot \sum_J H_k(J)}
+\]
+where N is the number of histogram bins.
+
+\item[Chi-Square (method=CV\_COMP\_CHISQR)]
+\[ d(H_1,H_2) = \sum_I \frac{(H_1(I)-H_2(I))^2}{H_1(I)+H_2(I)} \]
+
+\item[Intersection (method=CV\_COMP\_INTERSECT)]
+\[ d(H_1,H_2) = \sum_I \min (H_1(I), H_2(I)) \]
+
+\item[Bhattacharyya distance (method=CV\_COMP\_BHATTACHARYYA)]
+\[ d(H_1,H_2) = \sqrt{1 - \sum_I \frac{\sqrt{H_1(I) \cdot H_2(I)}}{ \sqrt { \sum_I H_1(I) \cdot \sum_I H_2(I) }}} \]
+
+\end{description}
+
+The function returns $d(H_1, H_2)$.
+
+Note: the method \texttt{CV\_COMP\_BHATTACHARYYA} only works with normalized histograms.
+
+To compare a sparse histogram or more general sparse configurations of weighted points, consider using the \cross{CalcEMD2} function.
+
+\ifC
+\cvfunc{CopyHist}\label{CopyHist}
+
+Copies a histogram.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvCopyHist( const CvHistogram* src, CvHistogram** dst );
+}{CPP}{PYTHON}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{src}{Source histogram}
+\cvarg{dst}{Pointer to destination histogram}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{CopyHist} makes a copy of the histogram. If the
+second histogram pointer \texttt{*dst} is NULL, a new histogram of the
+same size as \texttt{src} is created. Otherwise, both histograms must
+have equal types and sizes. Then the function copies the source histogram's
+bin values to the destination histogram and sets the same bin value ranges
+as in \texttt{src}.
+
+\fi
+
+\cvfunc{CalcHist}\label{CalcHist}
+
+Calculates the histogram of image(s).
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvCalcHist( \par IplImage** image,\par CvHistogram* hist,\par int accumulate=0,\par const CvArr* mask=NULL );
+}{CPP}{CalcHist(image,hist,ccumulate=0,mask=NULL)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{image}{Source images (though you may pass CvMat** as well)}
+\cvarg{hist}{Pointer to the histogram}
+\cvarg{accumulate}{Accumulation flag. If it is set, the histogram is not cleared in the beginning. This feature allows user to compute a single histogram from several images, or to update the histogram online}
+\cvarg{mask}{The operation mask, determines what pixels of the source images are counted}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{CalcHist} calculates the histogram of one or more
+single-channel images. The elements of a tuple that is used to increment
+a histogram bin are taken at the same location from the corresponding
+input images.
+
+% ===== Sample. Calculating and displaying 2D Hue-Saturation histogram of a color image =====
+\begin{lstlisting}
+#include <cv.h>
+#include <highgui.h>
+
+int main( int argc, char** argv )
+{
+ IplImage* src;
+ if( argc == 2 && (src=cvLoadImage(argv[1], 1))!= 0)
+ {
+ IplImage* h_plane = cvCreateImage( cvGetSize(src), 8, 1 );
+ IplImage* s_plane = cvCreateImage( cvGetSize(src), 8, 1 );
+ IplImage* v_plane = cvCreateImage( cvGetSize(src), 8, 1 );
+ IplImage* planes[] = { h_plane, s_plane };
+ IplImage* hsv = cvCreateImage( cvGetSize(src), 8, 3 );
+ int h_bins = 30, s_bins = 32;
+ int hist_size[] = {h_bins, s_bins};
+ /* hue varies from 0 (~0 deg red) to 180 (~360 deg red again) */
+ float h_ranges[] = { 0, 180 };
+ /* saturation varies from 0 (black-gray-white) to
+ 255 (pure spectrum color) */
+ float s_ranges[] = { 0, 255 };
+ float* ranges[] = { h_ranges, s_ranges };
+ int scale = 10;
+ IplImage* hist_img =
+ cvCreateImage( cvSize(h_bins*scale,s_bins*scale), 8, 3 );
+ CvHistogram* hist;
+ float max_value = 0;
+ int h, s;
+
+ cvCvtColor( src, hsv, CV_BGR2HSV );
+ cvCvtPixToPlane( hsv, h_plane, s_plane, v_plane, 0 );
+ hist = cvCreateHist( 2, hist_size, CV_HIST_ARRAY, ranges, 1 );
+ cvCalcHist( planes, hist, 0, 0 );
+ cvGetMinMaxHistValue( hist, 0, &max_value, 0, 0 );
+ cvZero( hist_img );
+
+ for( h = 0; h < h_bins; h++ )
+ {
+ for( s = 0; s < s_bins; s++ )
+ {
+ float bin_val = cvQueryHistValue_2D( hist, h, s );
+ int intensity = cvRound(bin_val*255/max_value);
+ cvRectangle( hist_img, cvPoint( h*scale, s*scale ),
+ cvPoint( (h+1)*scale - 1, (s+1)*scale - 1),
+ CV_RGB(intensity,intensity,intensity),
+ CV_FILLED );
+ }
+ }
+
+ cvNamedWindow( "Source", 1 );
+ cvShowImage( "Source", src );
+
+ cvNamedWindow( "H-S Histogram", 1 );
+ cvShowImage( "H-S Histogram", hist_img );
+
+ cvWaitKey(0);
+ }
+}
+\end{lstlisting}
+
+\cvfunc{CalcBackProject}\label{CalcBackProject}
+
+Calculates the back projection.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvCalcBackProject( \par IplImage** image,\par CvArr* back\_project,\par const CvHistogram* hist );
+}{CPP}{CalcBackProject(image,back\_project,hist)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{image}{Source images (though you may pass CvMat** as well)}
+\cvarg{back\_project}{Destination back projection image of the same type as the source images}
+\cvarg{hist}{Histogram}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvCalcBackProject} calculates the back project of the histogram. For each tuple of pixels at the same position of all input single-channel images the function puts the value of the histogram bin, corresponding to the tuple in the destination image. In terms of statistics, the value of each output image pixel is the probability of the observed tuple given the distribution (histogram). For example, to find a red object in the picture, one may do the following:
+
+\begin{enumerate}
+ \item Calculate a hue histogram for the red object assuming the image contains only this object. The histogram is likely to have a strong maximum, corresponding to red color.
+ \item Calculate back projection of a hue plane of input image where the object is searched, using the histogram. Threshold the image.
+ \item Find connected components in the resulting picture and choose the right component using some additional criteria, for example, the largest connected component.
+\end{enumerate}
+
+That is the approximate algorithm of Camshift color object tracker, except for the 3rd step, instead of which CAMSHIFT algorithm is used to locate the object on the back projection given the previous object position.
+
+\cvfunc{CalcBackProjectPatch}\label{CalcBackProjectPatch}
+
+Locates a template within an image by using a histogram comparison.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvCalcBackProjectPatch( \par IplImage** image,\par CvArr* dst,\par CvSize patch\_size,\par CvHistogram* hist,\par int method,\par float factor );
+}{CPP}{CalcBackProjectPatch(images,dst,patch\_size,hist,method,factor)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{image}{Source images (though, you may pass CvMat** as well)}
+\cvarg{dst}{Destination image}
+\cvarg{patch\_size}{Size of the patch slid though the source image}
+\cvarg{hist}{Histogram}
+\cvarg{method}{Compasion method, passed to \cross{CompareHist} (see description of that function)}
+\cvarg{factor}{Normalization factor for histograms, will affect the normalization scale of the destination image, pass 1 if unsure}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvCalcBackProjectPatch} calculates the back projection by comparing histograms of the source image patches with the given histogram. Taking measurement results from some image at each location over ROI creates an array \texttt{image}. These results might be one or more of hue, \texttt{x} derivative, \texttt{y} derivative, Laplacian filter, oriented Gabor filter, etc. Each measurement output is collected into its own separate image. The \texttt{image} image array is a collection of these measurement images. A multi-dimensional histogram \texttt{hist} is constructed by sampling from the \texttt{image} image array. The final histogram is normalized. The \texttt{hist} histogram has as many dimensions as the number of elements in \texttt{image} array.
+
+Each new image is measured and then converted into an \texttt{image} image array over a chosen ROI. Histograms are taken from this \texttt{image} image in an area covered by a "patch" with an anchor at center as shown in the picture below. The histogram is normalized using the parameter \texttt{norm\_factor} so that it may be compared with \texttt{hist}. The calculated histogram is compared to the model histogram; \texttt{hist} uses The function \texttt{cvCompareHist} with the comparison method=\texttt{method}). The resulting output is placed at the location corresponding to the patch anchor in the probability image \texttt{dst}. This process is repeated as the patch is slid over the ROI. Iterative histogram update by subtracting trailing pixels covered by the patch and adding newly covered pixels to the histogram can save a lot of operations, though it is not implemented yet.
+
+\cvfunc{Back Project Calculation by Patches}
+
+\includegraphics[width=0.5\textwidth]{pics/backprojectpatch.png}
+
+\cvfunc{CalcProbDensity}\label{CalcProbDensity}
+
+Divides one histogram by another.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvCalcProbDensity( \par const CvHistogram* hist1,\par const CvHistogram* hist2,\par CvHistogram* dst\_hist,\par double scale=255 );
+}{CPP}{CalcProbDensity(hist1,hist2,dst\_hst,scale=255)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{hist1}{first histogram (the divisor)}
+\cvarg{hist2}{second histogram}
+\cvarg{dst\_hist}{destination histogram}
+\cvarg{scale}{scale factor for the destination histogram}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{CalcProbDensity} calculates the object probability density from the two histograms as:
+
+\[
+\texttt{dist\_hist}(I)=
+\forkthree
+{0}{if $\texttt{hist1}(I)=0$}
+{\texttt{scale}}{if $\texttt{hist1}(I) \ne 0$ and $\texttt{hist2}(I) > \texttt{hist1}(I)$}
+{\frac{\texttt{hist2}(I) \cdot \texttt{scale}}{\texttt{hist1}(I)}}{if $\texttt{hist1}(I) \ne 0$ and $\texttt{hist2}(I) \le \texttt{hist1}(I)$}
+\]
+
+So the destination histogram bins are within less than \texttt{scale}.
+
+\cvfunc{EqualizeHist}\label{EqualizeHist}
+
+Equalizes the histogram of a grayscale image.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvEqualizeHist( const CvArr* src, CvArr* dst );
+}{CPP}{EqualizeHist(src,dst)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{src}{The 8-bit, single-channel, source image}
+\cvarg{dst}{The output image of the same size and the same data type as \texttt{src}}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvEqualizeHist} equalizes the histogram of the input image using the following algorithm:
+
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item calculate the histogram $H$ for src.
+\item normalize the histogram so that the sum of histogram bins is 255.
+\item compute the integral of the histogram:
+\[
+H'_i = \sum_{0 \le j \le i} H(j)
+\]
+\item transform the image using $H'$ as a look-up table: $\texttt{dst}(x,y) = H'(\texttt{src}(x,y))$
+\end{enumerate}
+
+The algorithm normalizes the brightness and increases the contrast of the image.
+
+\subsection{Matching}
+
+\cvfunc{MatchTemplate}\label{MatchTemplate}
+
+Compares a template against overlapped image regions.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvMatchTemplate( \par const CvArr* image,\par const CvArr* templ,\par CvArr* result,\par int method );
+}{CPP}{MatchTemplate(image,templ,result,method)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{image}{Image where the search is running; should be 8-bit or 32-bit floating-point}
+\cvarg{templ}{Searched template; must be not greater than the source image and the same data type as the image}
+\cvarg{result}{A map of comparison results; single-channel 32-bit floating-point.
+If \texttt{image} is $W \times H$ and
+\texttt{templ} is $w \times h$ then \texttt{result} must be $(W-w+1) \times (H-h+1)$}
+\cvarg{method}{Specifies the way the template must be compared with the image regions (see below)}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvMatchTemplate} is similar to
+\cross{CalcBackProjectPatch}. It slides through \texttt{image}, compares the
+overlapped patches of size $w \times h$ against \texttt{templ}
+using the specified method and stores the comparison results to
+\texttt{result}. Here are the formulas for the different comparison
+methods one may use ($I$ denotes \texttt{image}, $T$ \texttt{template},
+$R$ \texttt{result}). The summation is done over template and/or the
+image patch: $x' = 0...w-1, y' = 0...h-1$
+
+% \texttt{x'=0..w-1, y'=0..h-1}):
+
+\begin{description}
+\item[method=CV\_TM\_SQDIFF]
+\[ R(x,y)=\sum_{x',y'} (T(x',y')-I(x+x',y+y'))^2 \]
+
+\item[method=CV\_TM\_SQDIFF\_NORMED]
+\[ R(x,y)=\frac
+{\sum_{x',y'} (T(x',y')-I(x+x',y+y'))^2}
+{\sqrt{\sum_{x',y'}T(x',y')^2 \cdot \sum_{x',y'} I(x+x',y+y')^2}}
+\]
+
+\item[method=CV\_TM\_CCORR]
+\[ R(x,y)=\sum_{x',y'} (T(x',y') \cdot I(x+x',y+y')) \]
+
+\item[method=CV\_TM\_CCORR\_NORMED]
+\[ R(x,y)=\frac
+{\sum_{x',y'} (T(x',y') \cdot I'(x+x',y+y'))}
+{\sqrt{\sum_{x',y'}T(x',y')^2 \cdot \sum_{x',y'} I(x+x',y+y')^2}}
+\]
+
+\item[method=CV\_TM\_CCOEFF]
+\[ R(x,y)=\sum_{x',y'} (T'(x',y') \cdot I(x+x',y+y')) \]
+
+where
+\[
+\begin{array}{l}
+T'(x',y')=T(x',y') - 1/(w \cdot h) \cdot \sum_{x'',y''} T(x'',y'')\\
+I'(x+x',y+y')=I(x+x',y+y') - 1/(w \cdot h) \cdot \sum_{x'',y''} I(x+x'',y+y'')
+\end{array}
+\]
+
+\item[method=CV\_TM\_CCOEFF\_NORMED]
+\[ R(x,y)=\frac
+{ \sum_{x',y'} (T'(x',y') \cdot I'(x+x',y+y')) }
+{ \sqrt{\sum_{x',y'}T'(x',y')^2 \cdot \sum_{x',y'} I'(x+x',y+y')^2} }
+\]
+\end{description}
+
+After the function finishes the comparison, the best matches can be found as global minimums (\texttt{CV\_TM\_SQDIFF}) or maximums (\texttt{CV\_TM\_CCORR} and \texttt{CV\_TM\_CCOEFF}) using the \cross{MinMaxLoc} function. In the case of a color image, template summation in the numerator and each sum in the denominator is done over all of the channels (and separate mean values are used for each channel).
+
+\cvfunc{MatchShapes}\label{MatchShapes}
+
+Compares two shapes.
+
+\cvexp{
+double cvMatchShapes( \par const void* object1,\par const void* object2,\par int method,\par double parameter=0 );
+}{CPP}{MatchShapes(object1,object2,method,parameter=0)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{object1}{First contour or grayscale image}
+\cvarg{object2}{Second contour or grayscale image}
+\cvarg{method}{Comparison method;
+ \texttt{CV\_CONTOUR\_MATCH\_I1},
+ \texttt{CV\_CONTOURS\_MATCH\_I2}
+or
+ \texttt{CV\_CONTOURS\_MATCH\_I3}}
+\cvarg{parameter}{Method-specific parameter (is not used now)}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvMatchShapes} compares two shapes. The 3 implemented methods all use Hu moments (see \cross{GetHuMoments}) ($A$ is \texttt{object1}, $B$ is \texttt{object2}):
+
+\begin{description}
+\item[method=CV\_CONTOUR\_MATCH\_I1]
+\[ I_1(A,B) = \sum_{i=1...7} \left| \frac{1}{m^A_i} - \frac{1}{m^B_i} \right| \]
+
+\item[method=CV\_CONTOUR\_MATCH\_I2]
+\[ I_2(A,B) = \sum_{i=1...7} \left| m^A_i - m^B_i \right| \]
+
+\item[method=CV\_CONTOUR\_MATCH\_I3]
+\[ I_3(A,B) = \sum_{i=1...7} \frac{ \left| m^A_i - m^B_i \right| }{ \left| m^A_i \right| } \]
+\end{description}
+
+where
+
+\[
+\begin{array}{l}
+m^A_i = sign(h^A_i) \cdot \log{h^A_i}
+m^B_i = sign(h^B_i) \cdot \log{h^B_i}
+\end{array}
+\]
+
+and $h^A_i, h^B_i$ are the Hu moments of $A$ and $B$ respectively.
+
+\cvfunc{CalcEMD2}\label{CalcEMD2}
+
+Computes the "minimal work" distance between two weighted point configurations.
+
+\cvexp{
+float cvCalcEMD2( \par const CvArr* signature1,\par const CvArr* signature2,\par int distance\_type,\par CvDistanceFunction distance\_func=NULL,\par const CvArr* cost\_matrix=NULL,\par CvArr* flow=NULL,\par float* lower\_bound=NULL,\par void* userdata=NULL );
+}{CPP}{CalcEMD2(signature1, signature2, distance\_type, distance\_func = None, cost\_matrix=None, flow=None, lower\_bound=None, userdata = None) -> float}
+
+\begin{lstlisting}
+typedef float (*CvDistanceFunction)(const float* f1, const float* f2, void* userdata);
+\end{lstlisting}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{signature1}{First signature, a $\texttt{size1}\times \texttt{dims}+1$ floating-point matrix. Each row stores the point weight followed by the point coordinates. The matrix is allowed to have a single column (weights only) if the user-defined cost matrix is used}
+\cvarg{signature2}{Second signature of the same format as \texttt{signature1}, though the number of rows may be different. The total weights may be different, in this case an extra "dummy" point is added to either \texttt{signature1} or \texttt{signature2}}
+\cvarg{distance\_type}{Metrics used; \texttt{CV\_DIST\_L1, CV\_DIST\_L2}, and \texttt{CV\_DIST\_C} stand for one of the standard metrics; \texttt{CV\_DIST\_USER} means that a user-defined function \texttt{distance\_func} or pre-calculated \texttt{cost\_matrix} is used}
+\cvarg{distance\_func}{The user-defined distance function. It takes coordinates of two points and returns the distance between the points}
+\cvarg{cost\_matrix}{The user-defined $\texttt{size1}\times \texttt{size2}$ cost matrix. At least one of \texttt{cost\_matrix} and \texttt{distance\_func} must be NULL. Also, if a cost matrix is used, lower boundary (see below) can not be calculated, because it needs a metric function}
+\cvarg{flow}{The resultant $\texttt{size1} \times \texttt{size2}$ flow matrix: $\texttt{flow}_{i,j}$ is a flow from $i$ th point of \texttt{signature1} to $j$ th point of \texttt{signature2}}
+\cvarg{lower\_bound}{Optional input/output parameter: lower boundary of distance between the two signatures that is a distance between mass centers. The lower boundary may not be calculated if the user-defined cost matrix is used, the total weights of point configurations are not equal, or if the signatures consist of weights only (i.e. the signature matrices have a single column). The user \textbf{must} initialize \texttt{*lower\_bound}. If the calculated distance between mass centers is greater or equal to \texttt{*lower\_bound} (it means that the signatures are far enough) the function does not calculate EMD. In any case \texttt{*lower\_bound} is set to the calculated distance between mass centers on return. Thus, if user wants to calculate both distance between mass centers and EMD, \texttt{*lower\_bound} should be set to 0}
+\cvarg{userdata}{Pointer to optional data that is passed into the user-defined distance function}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvCalcEMD2} computes the earth mover distance and/or
+a lower boundary of the distance between the two weighted point
+configurations. One of the applications described in \cross{RubnerSept98} is
+multi-dimensional histogram comparison for image retrieval. EMD is a a
+transportation problem that is solved using some modification of a simplex
+algorithm, thus the complexity is exponential in the worst case, though, on average
+it is much faster. In the case of a real metric the lower boundary
+can be calculated even faster (using linear-time algorithm) and it can
+be used to determine roughly whether the two signatures are far enough
+so that they cannot relate to the same object.
+
+\section{Structural Analysis}
+
+\subsection{Contour Processing Functions}
+
+\cvfunc{ApproxChains}\label{ApproxChains}
+
+Approximates Freeman chain(s) with a polygonal curve.
+
+\cvexp{
+CvSeq* cvApproxChains( \par CvSeq* src\_seq,\par CvMemStorage* storage,\par int method=CV\_CHAIN\_APPROX\_SIMPLE,\par double parameter=0,\par int minimal\_perimeter=0,\par int recursive=0 );
+}{CPP}{ApproxChains(src\_seq,storage,method=CV\_CHAIN\_APPROX\_SIMPLE,parameter=0,minimal\_perimiter=0,recursive=0)-> chains}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{src\_seq}{Pointer to the chain that can refer to other chains}
+\cvarg{storage}{Storage location for the resulting polylines}
+\cvarg{method}{Approximation method (see the description of the function \cross{FindContours})}
+\cvarg{parameter}{Method parameter (not used now)}
+\cvarg{minimal\_perimeter}{Approximates only those contours whose perimeters are not less than \texttt{minimal\_perimeter}. Other chains are removed from the resulting structure}
+\cvarg{recursive}{If not 0, the function approximates all chains that access can be obtained to from \texttt{src\_seq} by using the \texttt{h\_next} or \texttt{v\_next links}. If 0, the single chain is approximated}
+\end{description}
+
+This is a stand-alone approximation routine. The function \texttt{cvApproxChains} works exactly in the same way as \cross{FindContours} with the corresponding approximation flag. The function returns pointer to the first resultant contour. Other approximated contours, if any, can be accessed via the \texttt{v\_next} or \texttt{h\_next} fields of the returned structure.
+
+\ifC
+\cvfunc{StartReadChainPoints}\label{StartReadChainPoints}
+
+Initializes the chain reader.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvStartReadChainPoints( CvChain* chain, CvChainPtReader* reader );
+}{CPP}{PYTHON}
+
+The function \texttt{cvStartReadChainPoints} initializes a special reader.
+
+\cvfunc{ReadChainPoint}\label{ReadChainPoint}
+
+Gets the next chain point.
+
+\cvexp{
+CvPoint cvReadChainPoint( CvChainPtReader* reader );
+}{CPP}{PYTHON}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{reader}{Chain reader state}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvReadChainPoint} returns the current chain point and updates the reader position.
+
+\fi
+
+\cvfunc{ApproxPoly}\label{ApproxPoly}
+
+Approximates polygonal curve(s) with the specified precision.
+
+\cvexp{
+CvSeq* cvApproxPoly( \par const void* src\_seq,\par int header\_size,\par CvMemStorage* storage,\par int method,\par double parameter,\par int parameter2=0 );
+}{CPP}{
+ApproxPoly(src\_seq, storage, method, parameter=0, parameter2=0)
+}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{src\_seq}{Sequence of an array of points}
+\cvarg{header\_size}{Header size of the approximated curve[s]}
+\cvarg{storage}{Container for the approximated contours. If it is NULL, the input sequences' storage is used}
+\cvarg{method}{Approximation method; only \texttt{CV\_POLY\_APPROX\_DP} is supported, that corresponds to the Douglas-Peucker algorithm}
+\cvarg{parameter}{Method-specific parameter; in the case of \texttt{CV\_POLY\_APPROX\_DP} it is a desired approximation accuracy}
+\cvarg{parameter2}{If case if \texttt{src\_seq} is a sequence, the parameter determines whether the single sequence should be approximated or all sequences on the same level or below \texttt{src\_seq} (see \cross{FindContours} for description of hierarchical contour structures). If \texttt{src\_seq} is an array CvMat* of points, the parameter specifies whether the curve is closed (\texttt{parameter2}!=0) or not (\texttt{parameter2} =0)}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvApproxPoly} approximates one or more curves and
+returns the approximation result[s]. In the case of multiple curves,
+the resultant tree will have the same structure as the input one (1:1
+correspondence).
+
+\cvfunc{BoundingRect}\label{BoundingRect}
+
+Calculates the up-right bounding rectangle of a point set.
+
+\cvexp{
+CvRect cvBoundingRect( CvArr* points, int update=0 );
+}{CPP}{BoundingRect(points,update=0)-> CvRect}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{points}{2D point set, either a sequence or vector (\texttt{CvMat}) of points}
+\cvarg{update}{The update flag. See below.}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvBoundingRect} returns the up-right bounding rectangle for a 2d point set.
+Here is the list of possible combination of the flag values and type of \texttt{points}:
+
+\begin{tabular}{|c|c|p{3in}|}
+\hline
+update & points & action \\ \hline
+0 & \texttt{CvContour\*} & the bounding rectangle is not calculated, but it is taken from \texttt{rect} field of the contour header.\\ \hline
+1 & \texttt{CvContour\*} & the bounding rectangle is calculated and written to \texttt{rect} field of the contour header.\\ \hline
+0 & \texttt{CvSeq\*} or \texttt{CvMat\*} & the bounding rectangle is calculated and returned.\\ \hline
+1 & \texttt{CvSeq\*} or \texttt{CvMat\*} & runtime error is raised.\\ \hline
+\end{tabular}
+
+\cvfunc{ContourArea}\label{ContourArea}
+
+Calculates the area of a whole contour or a contour section.
+
+\cvexp{
+double cvContourArea( \par const CvArr* contour, \par CvSlice slice=CV\_WHOLE\_SEQ );
+}{CPP}{ContourAres(contour,slice=CV\_WHOLE\_SEQ)-> double}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{contour}{Contour (sequence or array of vertices)}
+\cvarg{slice}{Starting and ending points of the contour section of interest, by default, the area of the whole contour is calculated}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvContourArea} calculates the area of a whole contour
+or a contour section. In the latter case the total area bounded by the
+contour arc and the chord connecting the 2 selected points is calculated
+as shown on the picture below:
+
+\includegraphics[width=0.5\textwidth]{pics/contoursecarea.png}
+
+Orientation of the contour affects the area sign, thus the function may return a \emph{negative} result. Use the \texttt{fabs()} function from C runtime to get the absolute value of the area.
+
+\cvfunc{ArcLength}\label{ArcLength}
+
+Calculates the contour perimeter or the curve length.
+
+\cvexp{
+double cvArcLength( \par const void* curve,\par CvSlice slice=CV\_WHOLE\_SEQ,\par int is\_closed=-1 );
+}{CPP}{ArcLength(curve,slice=CV\_WHOLE\_SEQ,is\_closed=-1)-> double}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{curve}{Sequence or array of the curve points}
+\cvarg{slice}{Starting and ending points of the curve, by default, the whole curve length is calculated}
+\cvarg{is\_closed}{Indicates whether the curve is closed or not. There are 3 cases:
+\begin{itemize}
+ \item $\texttt{is\_closed} =0$ the curve is assumed to be unclosed.
+ \item $\texttt{is\_closed}>0$ the curve is assumed to be closed.
+ \item $\texttt{is\_closed}<0$ if curve is sequence, the flag \texttt{CV\_SEQ\_FLAG\_CLOSED} of \texttt{((CvSeq*)curve)->flags} is checked to determine if the curve is closed or not, otherwise (curve is represented by array (CvMat*) of points) it is assumed to be unclosed.
+\end{itemize}}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvArcLength} calculates the length or curve as the sum of lengths of segments between subsequent points
+
+\cvfunc{CreateContourTree}\label{CreateContourTree}
+
+Creates a hierarchical representation of a contour.
+
+\cvexp{
+CvContourTree* cvCreateContourTree( /par const CvSeq* contour,\par CvMemStorage* storage,\par double threshold );
+}{CPP}{CreateCountourTree(contour,storage,threshold)-> contour\_tree}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{contour}{Input contour}
+\cvarg{storage}{Container for output tree}
+\cvarg{threshold}{Approximation accuracy}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvCreateContourTree} creates a binary tree representation for the input \texttt{contour} and returns the pointer to its root. If the parameter \texttt{threshold} is less than or equal to 0, the function creates a full binary tree representation. If the threshold is greater than 0, the function creates a representation with the precision \texttt{threshold}: if the vertices with the interceptive area of its base line are less than \texttt{threshold}, the tree should not be built any further. The function returns the created tree.
+
+\cvfunc{ContourFromContourTree}\label{ContourFromContourTree}
+
+Restores a contour from the tree.
+
+\cvexp{
+CvSeq* cvContourFromContourTree( \par const CvContourTree* tree,\par CvMemStorage* storage,\par CvTermCriteria criteria );
+}{CPP}{ContourFromContourTree(tree,storage,criteria)-> contour}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{tree}{Contour tree}
+\cvarg{storage}{Container for the reconstructed contour}
+\cvarg{criteria}{Criteria, where to stop reconstruction}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvContourFromContourTree} restores the contour from its binary tree representation. The parameter \texttt{criteria} determines the accuracy and/or the number of tree levels used for reconstruction, so it is possible to build an approximated contour. The function returns the reconstructed contour.
+
+\cvfunc{MatchContourTrees}\label{MatchContourTrees}
+
+Compares two contours using their tree representations.
+
+\cvexp{
+double cvMatchContourTrees( \par const CvContourTree* tree1,\par const CvContourTree* tree2,\par int method,\par double threshold );
+}{CPP}{MatchContourTrees(tree1,tree2,method,threshold)-> double}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{tree1}{First contour tree}
+\cvarg{tree2}{Second contour tree}
+\cvarg{method}{Similarity measure, only \texttt{CV\_CONTOUR\_TREES\_MATCH\_I1} is supported}
+\cvarg{threshold}{Similarity threshold}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvMatchContourTrees} calculates the value of the matching measure for two contour trees. The similarity measure is calculated level by level from the binary tree roots. If at a certain level the difference between contours becomes less than \texttt{threshold}, the reconstruction process is interrupted and the current difference is returned.
+
+\subsection{Computational Geometry}
+
+\cvfunc{MaxRect}\label{MaxRect}
+
+Finds the bounding rectangle for two given rectangles.
+
+\cvexp{
+CvRect cvMaxRect( \par const CvRect* rect1,\par const CvRect* rect2 );
+}{CPP}{MaxRect(rect1,rect2)-> CvRect}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{rect1}{First rectangle}
+\cvarg{rect2}{Second rectangle}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvMaxRect} finds the minimum area rectangle that contains both input rectangles.
+
+\includegraphics[width=0.5\textwidth]{pics/maxrect.png}
+
+\ifC
+\cvstruct{CvBox2D}\label{CvBox2D}
+
+Rotated 2D box.
+
+\begin{lstlisting}
+typedef struct CvBox2D
+{
+ CvPoint2D32f center; /* center of the box */
+ CvSize2D32f size; /* box width and length */
+ float angle; /* angle between the horizontal axis
+ and the first side (i.e. length) in degrees */
+}
+CvBox2D;
+\end{lstlisting}
+\fi
+
+\ifC
+\cvfunc{PointSeqFromMat}\label{PointSeqFromMat}
+
+Initializes a point sequence header from a point vector.
+
+\cvexp{
+CvSeq* cvPointSeqFromMat( \par int seq\_kind,\par const CvArr* mat,\par CvContour* contour\_header,\par CvSeqBlock* block );
+}{CPP}{PYTHON}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{seq\_kind}{Type of the point sequence: point set (0), a curve (\texttt{CV\_SEQ\_KIND\_CURVE}), closed curve (\texttt{CV\_SEQ\_KIND\_CURVE+CV\_SEQ\_FLAG\_CLOSED}) etc.}
+\cvarg{mat}{Input matrix. It should be a continuous, 1-dimensional vector of points, that is, it should have type \texttt{CV\_32SC2} or \texttt{CV\_32FC2}}
+\cvarg{contour\_header}{Contour header, initialized by the function}
+\cvarg{block}{Sequence block header, initialized by the function}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvPointSeqFromMat} initializes a sequence
+header to create a "virtual" sequence in which elements reside in
+the specified matrix. No data is copied. The initialized sequence
+header may be passed to any function that takes a point sequence
+on input. No extra elements can be added to the sequence,
+but some may be removed. The function is a specialized variant of
+\cross{MakeSeqHeaderForArray} and uses
+the latter internally. It returns a pointer to the initialized contour
+header. Note that the bounding rectangle (field \texttt{rect} of
+\texttt{CvContour} strucuture) is not initialized by the function. If
+you need one, use \cross{BoundingRect}.
+
+Here is a simple usage example.
+
+\begin{lstlisting}
+CvContour header;
+CvSeqBlock block;
+CvMat* vector = cvCreateMat( 1, 3, CV_32SC2 );
+
+CV_MAT_ELEM( *vector, CvPoint, 0, 0 ) = cvPoint(100,100);
+CV_MAT_ELEM( *vector, CvPoint, 0, 1 ) = cvPoint(100,200);
+CV_MAT_ELEM( *vector, CvPoint, 0, 2 ) = cvPoint(200,100);
+
+IplImage* img = cvCreateImage( cvSize(300,300), 8, 3 );
+cvZero(img);
+
+cvDrawContours( img,
+ cvPointSeqFromMat(CV_SEQ_KIND_CURVE+CV_SEQ_FLAG_CLOSED,
+ vector,
+ &header,
+ &block),
+ CV_RGB(255,0,0),
+ CV_RGB(255,0,0),
+ 0, 3, 8, cvPoint(0,0));
+\end{lstlisting}
+\fi
+
+\cvfunc{BoxPoints}\label{BoxPoints}
+
+Finds the box vertices.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvBoxPoints( \par CvBox2D box,\par CvPoint2D32f pt[4] );
+}{CPP}{BoxPoints(box)-> points}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{box}{Box}
+\cvarg{pt}{Array of vertices}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvBoxPoints} calculates the vertices of the input 2d box. Here is the function code:
+
+\begin{lstlisting}
+void cvBoxPoints( CvBox2D box, CvPoint2D32f pt[4] )
+{
+ float a = (float)cos(box.angle)*0.5f;
+ float b = (float)sin(box.angle)*0.5f;
+
+ pt[0].x = box.center.x - a*box.size.height - b*box.size.width;
+ pt[0].y = box.center.y + b*box.size.height - a*box.size.width;
+ pt[1].x = box.center.x + a*box.size.height - b*box.size.width;
+ pt[1].y = box.center.y - b*box.size.height - a*box.size.width;
+ pt[2].x = 2*box.center.x - pt[0].x;
+ pt[2].y = 2*box.center.y - pt[0].y;
+ pt[3].x = 2*box.center.x - pt[1].x;
+ pt[3].y = 2*box.center.y - pt[1].y;
+}
+\end{lstlisting}
+
+\cvfunc{FitEllipse}\label{FitEllipse}
+
+Fits an ellipse around a set of 2D points.
+
+\cvexp{
+CvBox2D cvFitEllipse2( \par const CvArr* points );
+}{CPP}{FitEllipse2(points)-> Box2D}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{points}{Sequence or array of points}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvFitEllipse} calculates the ellipse that fits best
+(in least-squares sense) around a set of 2D points. The meaning of the
+returned structure fields is similar to those in \cross{Ellipse} except
+that \texttt{size} stores the full lengths of the ellipse axises,
+not half-lengths.
+
+\cvfunc{FitLine}\label{FitLine}
+
+Fits a line to a 2D or 3D point set.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvFitLine( \par const CvArr* points,\par int dist\_type,\par double param,\par double reps,\par double aeps,\par float* line );
+}{CPP}{FitLine(points, dist\_type, param, reps, aeps) -> line}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{points}{Sequence or array of 2D or 3D points with 32-bit integer or floating-point coordinates}
+\cvarg{dist\_type}{The distance used for fitting (see the discussion)}
+\cvarg{param}{Numerical parameter (\texttt{C}) for some types of distances, if 0 then some optimal value is chosen}
+\cvarg{reps, aeps}{Sufficient accuracy for the radius (distance between the coordinate origin and the line) and angle, respectively; 0.01 would be a good default value for both.}
+\cvarg{line}{The output line parameters. In the case of a 2d fitting,
+it is \cvC{an array} \cvPy{a tuple} of 4 floats \texttt{(vx, vy,
+x0, y0)} where \texttt{(vx, vy)} is a normalized vector collinear to the
+line and \texttt{(x0, y0)} is some point on the line. in the case of a
+3D fitting it is \cvC{an array} \cvPy{a tuple} of 6 floats \texttt{(vx, vy, vz, x0, y0, z0)}
+where \texttt{(vx, vy, vz)} is a normalized vector collinear to the line
+and \texttt{(x0, y0, z0)} is some point on the line}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvFitLine} fits a line to a 2D or 3D point set by minimizing $\sum_i \rho(r_i)$ where $r_i$ is the distance between the $i$ th point and the line and $\rho(r)$ is a distance function, one of:
+
+\begin{description}
+
+\item[dist\_type=CV\_DIST\_L2]
+\[ \rho(r) = r^2/2 \quad \text{(the simplest and the fastest least-squares method)} \]
+
+\item[dist\_type=CV\_DIST\_L1]
+\[ \rho(r) = r \]
+
+\item[dist\_type=CV\_DIST\_L12]
+\[ \rho(r) = 2 \cdot (\sqrt{1 + \frac{r^2}{2}} - 1) \]
+
+\item[dist\_type=CV\_DIST\_FAIR]
+\[ \rho\left(r\right) = C^2 \cdot \left( \frac{r}{C} - \log{\left(1 + \frac{r}{C}\right)}\right) \quad \text{where} \quad C=1.3998 \]
+
+\item[dist\_type=CV\_DIST\_WELSCH]
+\[ \rho\left(r\right) = \frac{C^2}{2} \cdot \left( 1 - \exp{\left(-\left(\frac{r}{C}\right)^2\right)}\right) \quad \text{where} \quad C=2.9846 \]
+
+\item[dist\_type=CV\_DIST\_HUBER]
+\[ \rho(r) = \fork
+{r^2/2}{if $r < C$}
+{C \cdot (r-C/2)}{otherwise} \quad \text{where} \quad C=1.345
+\]
+\end{description}
+
+\cvfunc{ConvexHull2}\label{ConvexHull2}
+
+Finds the convex hull of a point set.
+
+\cvexp{
+CvSeq* cvConvexHull2( \par const CvArr* input,\par void* hull\_storage=NULL,\par int orientation=CV\_CLOCKWISE,\par int return\_points=0 );
+}{CPP}{ConvexHull2(points,storage,orientaton=CV\_CLOCKWISE,return\_points=0)-> convex\_hull}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{points}{Sequence or array of 2D points with 32-bit integer or floating-point coordinates}
+\cvarg{hull\_storage}{The destination array (CvMat*) or memory storage (CvMemStorage*) that will store the convex hull. If it is an array, it should be 1d and have the same number of elements as the input array/sequence. On output the header is modified as to truncate the array down to the hull size. If \texttt{hull\_storage} is NULL then the convex hull will be stored in the same storage as the input sequence}
+\cvarg{orientation}{Desired orientation of convex hull: \texttt{CV\_CLOCKWISE} or \texttt{CV\_COUNTER\_CLOCKWISE}}
+\cvarg{return\_points}{If non-zero, the points themselves will be stored in the hull instead of indices if \texttt{hull\_storage} is an array, or pointers if \texttt{hull\_storage} is memory storage}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvConvexHull2} finds the convex hull of a 2D point set using Sklansky's algorithm. If \texttt{hull\_storage} is memory storage, the function creates a sequence containing the hull points or pointers to them, depending on \texttt{return\_points} value and returns the sequence on output. If \texttt{hull\_storage} is a CvMat, the function returns NULL.
+
+% ===== Example. Building convex hull for a sequence or array of points =====
+\begin{lstlisting}
+#include "cv.h"
+#include "highgui.h"
+#include <stdlib.h>
+
+#define ARRAY 0 /* switch between array/sequence method by replacing 0<=>1 */
+
+void main( int argc, char** argv )
+{
+ IplImage* img = cvCreateImage( cvSize( 500, 500 ), 8, 3 );
+ cvNamedWindow( "hull", 1 );
+
+#if !ARRAY
+ CvMemStorage* storage = cvCreateMemStorage();
+#endif
+
+ for(;;)
+ {
+ int i, count = rand()%100 + 1, hullcount;
+ CvPoint pt0;
+#if !ARRAY
+ CvSeq* ptseq = cvCreateSeq( CV_SEQ_KIND_GENERIC|CV_32SC2,
+ sizeof(CvContour),
+ sizeof(CvPoint),
+ storage );
+ CvSeq* hull;
+
+ for( i = 0; i < count; i++ )
+ {
+ pt0.x = rand() % (img->width/2) + img->width/4;
+ pt0.y = rand() % (img->height/2) + img->height/4;
+ cvSeqPush( ptseq, &pt0 );
+ }
+ hull = cvConvexHull2( ptseq, 0, CV_CLOCKWISE, 0 );
+ hullcount = hull->total;
+#else
+ CvPoint* points = (CvPoint*)malloc( count * sizeof(points[0]));
+ int* hull = (int*)malloc( count * sizeof(hull[0]));
+ CvMat point_mat = cvMat( 1, count, CV_32SC2, points );
+ CvMat hull_mat = cvMat( 1, count, CV_32SC1, hull );
+
+ for( i = 0; i < count; i++ )
+ {
+ pt0.x = rand() % (img->width/2) + img->width/4;
+ pt0.y = rand() % (img->height/2) + img->height/4;
+ points[i] = pt0;
+ }
+ cvConvexHull2( &point_mat, &hull_mat, CV_CLOCKWISE, 0 );
+ hullcount = hull_mat.cols;
+#endif
+ cvZero( img );
+ for( i = 0; i < count; i++ )
+ {
+#if !ARRAY
+ pt0 = *CV_GET_SEQ_ELEM( CvPoint, ptseq, i );
+#else
+ pt0 = points[i];
+#endif
+ cvCircle( img, pt0, 2, CV_RGB( 255, 0, 0 ), CV_FILLED );
+ }
+
+#if !ARRAY
+ pt0 = **CV_GET_SEQ_ELEM( CvPoint*, hull, hullcount - 1 );
+#else
+ pt0 = points[hull[hullcount-1]];
+#endif
+
+ for( i = 0; i < hullcount; i++ )
+ {
+#if !ARRAY
+ CvPoint pt = **CV_GET_SEQ_ELEM( CvPoint*, hull, i );
+#else
+ CvPoint pt = points[hull[i]];
+#endif
+ cvLine( img, pt0, pt, CV_RGB( 0, 255, 0 ));
+ pt0 = pt;
+ }
+
+ cvShowImage( "hull", img );
+
+ int key = cvWaitKey(0);
+ if( key == 27 ) // 'ESC'
+ break;
+
+#if !ARRAY
+ cvClearMemStorage( storage );
+#else
+ free( points );
+ free( hull );
+#endif
+ }
+}
+\end{lstlisting}
+
+\cvfunc{CheckContourConvexity}\label{CheckContourConvexity}
+
+Tests contour convexity.
+
+\cvexp{
+int cvCheckContourConvexity( const CvArr* contour );
+}{CPP}{CheckContourConvexity(contour)-> int}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{contour}{Tested contour (sequence or array of points)}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvCheckContourConvexity} tests whether the input contour is convex or not. The contour must be simple, without self-intersections.
+
+\cvstruct{CvConvexityDefect}\label{CvConvexityDefect}
+
+Structure describing a single contour convexity defect.
+
+\begin{lstlisting}
+typedef struct CvConvexityDefect
+{
+ CvPoint* start; /* point of the contour where the defect begins */
+ CvPoint* end; /* point of the contour where the defect ends */
+ CvPoint* depth_point; /* the farthest from the convex hull point within the defect */
+ float depth; /* distance between the farthest point and the convex hull */
+} CvConvexityDefect;
+\end{lstlisting}
+
+% ===== Picture. Convexity defects of hand contour. =====
+\includegraphics[width=0.5\textwidth]{pics/defects.png}
+
+\cvfunc{ConvexityDefects}\label{ConvexityDefects}
+
+Finds the convexity defects of a contour.
+
+\cvexp{
+CvSeq* cvConvexityDefects( \par const CvArr* contour,\par const CvArr* convexhull,\par CvMemStorage* storage=NULL );
+}{CPP}{ConvexityDefects(contour,convexhull,storage)-> convexity\_defects}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{contour}{Input contour}
+\cvarg{convexhull}{Convex hull obtained using \cross{ConvexHull2} that should contain pointers or indices to the contour points, not the hull points themselves (the \texttt{return\_points} parameter in \cross{ConvexHull2} should be 0)}
+\cvarg{storage}{Container for the output sequence of convexity defects. If it is NULL, the contour or hull (in that order) storage is used}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{ConvexityDefects} finds all convexity defects of the input contour and returns a sequence of the CvConvexityDefect structures.
+
+\cvfunc{PointPolygonTest}\label{PointPolygonTest}
+
+Point in contour test.
+
+\cvexp{
+double cvPointPolygonTest( \par const CvArr* contour,\par CvPoint2D32f pt,\par int measure\_dist );
+}{CPP}{PointPolygonTest(contour,pt,measure\_dist)-> double}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{contour}{Input contour}
+\cvarg{pt}{The point tested against the contour}
+\cvarg{measure\_dist}{If it is non-zero, the function estimates the distance from the point to the nearest contour edge}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvPointPolygonTest} determines whether the
+point is inside a contour, outside, or lies on an edge (or coinsides
+with a vertex). It returns positive, negative or zero value,
+correspondingly. When $\texttt{measure\_dist} =0$, the return value
+is +1, -1 and 0, respectively. When $\texttt{measure\_dist} \ne 0$,
+it is a signed distance between the point and the nearest contour
+edge.
+
+Here is the sample output of the function, where each image pixel is tested against the contour.
+
+\includegraphics[width=0.5\textwidth]{pics/pointpolygon.png}
+
+\cvfunc{MinAreaRect2}\label{MinAreaRect2}
+
+Finds the circumscribed rectangle of minimal area for a given 2D point set.
+
+\cvexp{
+CvBox2D cvMinAreaRect2( \par const CvArr* points,\par CvMemStorage* storage=NULL );
+}{CPP}{MinAreaRect2(points,storage)-> CvBox2D}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{points}{Sequence or array of points}
+\cvarg{storage}{Optional temporary memory storage}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvMinAreaRect2} finds a circumscribed rectangle of the minimal area for a 2D point set by building a convex hull for the set and applying the rotating calipers technique to the hull.
+
+\cvfunc{Picture. Minimal-area bounding rectangle for contour}
+
+\includegraphics[width=0.5\textwidth]{pics/minareabox.png}
+
+\cvfunc{MinEnclosingCircle}\label{MinEnclosingCircle}
+
+Finds the circumscribed circle of minimal area for a given 2D point set.
+
+\cvexp{
+int cvMinEnclosingCircle( \par const CvArr* points,\par CvPoint2D32f* center,\par float* radius );
+}{CPP}{MinEnclosingCircle(points)-> int,center,radius}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{points}{Sequence or array of 2D points}
+\cvarg{center}{Output parameter; the center of the enclosing circle}
+\cvarg{radius}{Output parameter; the radius of the enclosing circle}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvMinEnclosingCircle} finds the minimal circumscribed
+circle for a 2D point set using an iterative algorithm. It returns nonzero
+if the resultant circle contains all the input points and zero otherwise
+(i.e. the algorithm failed).
+
+\cvfunc{CalcPGH}\label{CalcPGH}
+
+Calculates a pair-wise geometrical histogram for a contour.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvCalcPGH( const CvSeq* contour, CvHistogram* hist );
+}{CPP}{CalcPGH(contour,hist)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{contour}{Input contour. Currently, only integer point coordinates are allowed}
+\cvarg{hist}{Calculated histogram; must be two-dimensional}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvCalcPGH} calculates a
+2D pair-wise geometrical histogram (PGH), described in
+\cross{Iivarinen97}
+for the contour. The algorithm considers every pair of contour
+edges. The angle between the edges and the minimum/maximum distances
+are determined for every pair. To do this each of the edges in turn
+is taken as the base, while the function loops through all the other
+edges. When the base edge and any other edge are considered, the minimum
+and maximum distances from the points on the non-base edge and line of
+the base edge are selected. The angle between the edges defines the row
+of the histogram in which all the bins that correspond to the distance
+between the calculated minimum and maximum distances are incremented
+(that is, the histogram is transposed relatively to the \cross{Iivarninen97}
+definition). The histogram can be used for contour matching.
+
+\subsection{Planar Subdivisions}
+
+\cvstruct{CvSubdiv2D}\label{CvSubdiv2D}
+
+Planar subdivision.
+
+\begin{lstlisting}
+#define CV_SUBDIV2D_FIELDS() \
+ CV_GRAPH_FIELDS() \
+ int quad_edges; \
+ int is_geometry_valid; \
+ CvSubdiv2DEdge recent_edge; \
+ CvPoint2D32f topleft; \
+ CvPoint2D32f bottomright;
+
+typedef struct CvSubdiv2D
+{
+ CV_SUBDIV2D_FIELDS()
+}
+CvSubdiv2D;
+\end{lstlisting}
+
+Planar subdivision is the subdivision of a plane into a set of
+non-overlapped regions (facets) that cover the whole plane. The above
+structure describes a subdivision built on a 2d point set, where the points
+are linked together and form a planar graph, which, together with a few
+edges connecting the exterior subdivision points (namely, convex hull points)
+with infinity, subdivides a plane into facets by its edges.
+
+For every subdivision there exists a dual subdivision in which facets and
+points (subdivision vertices) swap their roles, that is, a facet is
+treated as a vertex (called a virtual point below) of the dual subdivision and
+the original subdivision vertices become facets. On the picture below
+original subdivision is marked with solid lines and dual subdivision
+with dotted lines.
+
+\includegraphics[width=0.5\textwidth]{pics/subdiv.png}
+
+OpenCV subdivides a plane into triangles using Delaunay's
+algorithm. Subdivision is built iteratively starting from a dummy
+triangle that includes all the subdivision points for sure. In this
+case the dual subdivision is a Voronoi diagram of the input 2d point set. The
+subdivisions can be used for the 3d piece-wise transformation of a plane,
+morphing, fast location of points on the plane, building special graphs
+(such as NNG,RNG) and so forth.
+
+\cvstruct{CvQuadEdge2D}\label{CvQuadEdge2D}
+
+Quad-edge of planar subdivision.
+
+\begin{lstlisting}
+/* one of edges within quad-edge, lower 2 bits is index (0..3)
+ and upper bits are quad-edge pointer */
+typedef long CvSubdiv2DEdge;
+
+/* quad-edge structure fields */
+#define CV_QUADEDGE2D_FIELDS() \
+ int flags; \
+ struct CvSubdiv2DPoint* pt[4]; \
+ CvSubdiv2DEdge next[4];
+
+typedef struct CvQuadEdge2D
+{
+ CV_QUADEDGE2D_FIELDS()
+}
+CvQuadEdge2D;
+
+\end{lstlisting}
+
+Quad-edge is a basic element of subdivision containing four edges (e, eRot, reversed e and reversed eRot):
+
+\includegraphics[width=0.5\textwidth]{pics/quadedge.png}
+
+\cvstruct{CvSubdiv2DPoint}\label{CvSubdiv2DPoint}
+
+Point of original or dual subdivision.
+
+\begin{lstlisting}
+#define CV_SUBDIV2D_POINT_FIELDS()\
+ int flags; \
+ CvSubdiv2DEdge first; \
+ CvPoint2D32f pt;
+
+#define CV_SUBDIV2D_VIRTUAL_POINT_FLAG (1 << 30)
+
+typedef struct CvSubdiv2DPoint
+{
+ CV_SUBDIV2D_POINT_FIELDS()
+}
+CvSubdiv2DPoint;
+\end{lstlisting}
+
+\cvfunc{Subdiv2DGetEdge}\label{Subdiv2DGetEdge}
+
+Returns one of the edges related to the given edge.
+
+\cvexp{
+CvSubdiv2DEdge cvSubdiv2DGetEdge( CvSubdiv2DEdge edge, CvNextEdgeType type );
+
+
+}{CPP}{Subdiv2DGetEdge(edge,type)-> CvSubdiv2DEdge}
+\begin{lstlisting}
+#define cvSubdiv2DNextEdge( edge ) cvSubdiv2DGetEdge( edge, CV_NEXT_AROUND_ORG )
+\end{lstlisting}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{edge}{Subdivision edge (not a quad-edge)}
+\cvarg{type}{Specifies which of the related edges to return, one of the following:}
+\begin{description}
+ \cvarg{CV\_NEXT\_AROUND\_ORG}{next around the edge origin (\texttt{eOnext} on the picture above if \texttt{e} is the input edge)}
+ \cvarg{CV\_NEXT\_AROUND\_DST}{next around the edge vertex (\texttt{eDnext})}
+ \cvarg{CV\_PREV\_AROUND\_ORG}{previous around the edge origin (reversed \texttt{eRnext})}
+ \cvarg{CV\_PREV\_AROUND\_DST}{previous around the edge destination (reversed \texttt{eLnext})}
+ \cvarg{CV\_NEXT\_AROUND\_LEFT}{next around the left facet (\texttt{eLnext})}
+ \cvarg{CV\_NEXT\_AROUND\_RIGHT}{next around the right facet (\texttt{eRnext})}
+ \cvarg{CV\_PREV\_AROUND\_LEFT}{previous around the left facet (reversed \texttt{eOnext})}
+ \cvarg{CV\_PREV\_AROUND\_RIGHT}{previous around the right facet (reversed \texttt{eDnext})}
+\end{description}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvSubdiv2DGetEdge} returns one of the edges related to the input edge.
+
+\cvfunc{Subdiv2DRotateEdge}\label{Subdiv2DRotateEdge}
+
+Returns another edge of the same quad-edge.
+
+\cvexp{
+CvSubdiv2DEdge cvSubdiv2DRotateEdge( \par CvSubdiv2DEdge edge,\par int rotate );
+}{CPP}{Subdiv2DRotateEdge(edge,rotate)-> CvSubdiv2DEdge}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{edge}{Subdivision edge (not a quad-edge)}
+\cvarg{type}{Specifies which of the edges of the same quad-edge as the input one to return, one of the following:
+\begin{description}
+ \cvarg{0}{the input edge (\texttt{e} on the picture above if \texttt{e} is the input edge)}
+ \cvarg{1}{the rotated edge (\texttt{eRot})}
+ \cvarg{2}{the reversed edge (reversed \texttt{e} (in green))}
+ \cvarg{3}{the reversed rotated edge (reversed \texttt{eRot} (in green))}
+\end{description}}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvSubdiv2DRotateEdge} returns one of the edges of the same quad-edge as the input edge.
+
+\cvfunc{Subdiv2DEdgeOrg}\label{Subdiv2DEdgeOrg}
+
+Returns the edge origin.
+
+\cvexp{
+CvSubdiv2DPoint* cvSubdiv2DEdgeOrg( \par CvSubdiv2DEdge edge );
+}{CPP}{Subdiv2DEdgeOrg(edge)-> point}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{edge}{Subdivision edge (not a quad-edge)}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvSubdiv2DEdgeOrg} returns the edge
+origin. The returned pointer may be NULL if the edge is from dual
+subdivision and the virtual point coordinates are not calculated
+yet. The virtual points can be calculated using the function
+\cross{CalcSubdivVoronoi2D}.
+
+\cvfunc{Subdiv2DEdgeDst}\label{Subdiv2DEdgeDst}
+
+Returns the edge destination.
+
+\cvexp{
+CvSubdiv2DPoint* cvSubdiv2DEdgeDst( \par CvSubdiv2DEdge edge );
+}{CPP}{Subdiv2DEdgeDist(edge)-> point}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{edge}{Subdivision edge (not a quad-edge)}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvSubdiv2DEdgeDst} returns the edge destination. The
+returned pointer may be NULL if the edge is from dual subdivision and
+the virtual point coordinates are not calculated yet. The virtual points
+can be calculated using the function \cross{CalcSubdivVoronoi2D}.
+
+\cvfunc{CreateSubdivDelaunay2D}\label{CreateSubdivDelaunay2D}
+
+Creates an empty Delaunay triangulation.
+
+\cvexp{
+CvSubdiv2D* cvCreateSubdivDelaunay2D( \par CvRect rect,\par CvMemStorage* storage );
+}{CPP}{CreateSubdivDelaunay2D(rect,storage)-> delaunay\_triangulation}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{rect}{Rectangle that includes all of the 2d points that are to be added to the subdivision}
+\cvarg{storage}{Container for subdivision}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{CreateSubdivDelaunay2D} creates an empty Delaunay
+subdivision, where 2d points can be added using the function
+\cross{SubdivDelaunay2DInsert}. All of the points to be added must be within
+the specified rectangle, otherwise a runtime error will be raised.
+
+Note that the triangulation is a single large triangle that covers the given rectangle. Hence the three vertices of this triangle are outside the rectangle \texttt{rect}.
+
+\cvfunc{SubdivDelaunay2DInsert}\label{SubdivDelaunay2DInsert}
+
+Inserts a single point into a Delaunay triangulation.
+
+\cvexp{
+CvSubdiv2DPoint* cvSubdivDelaunay2DInsert( \par CvSubdiv2D* subdiv,\par CvPoint2D32f pt);
+}{CPP}{SubdivDelaunay2DInsert(subdiv,pt)-> point}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{subdiv}{Delaunay subdivision created by the function \cross{CreateSubdivDelaunay2D}}
+\cvarg{pt}{Inserted point}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvSubdivDelaunay2DInsert} inserts a single point into a subdivision and modifies the subdivision topology appropriately. If a point with the same coordinates exists already, no new point is added. The function returns a pointer to the allocated point. No virtual point coordinates are calculated at this stage.
+
+\cvfunc{Subdiv2DLocate}\label{Subdiv2DLocate}
+
+Returns the location of a point within a Delaunay triangulation.
+
+\cvexp{
+CvSubdiv2DPointLocation cvSubdiv2DLocate( \par CvSubdiv2D* subdiv,\par CvPoint2D32f pt,\par CvSubdiv2DEdge* edge,\par CvSubdiv2DPoint** vertex=NULL );
+}{CPP}{Subdiv2DLocate(subdiv, pt) -> (loc, where)}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{subdiv}{Delaunay or another subdivision}
+\cvarg{pt}{The point to locate}
+\cvC{\cvarg{edge}{The output edge the point falls onto or right to}}
+\cvC{\cvarg{vertex}{Optional output vertex double pointer the input point coinsides with}}
+\cvPy{\cvarg{loc}{The location of the point within the triangulation}}
+\cvPy{\cvarg{where}{The edge or vertex. See below.}}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvSubdiv2DLocate} locates the input point within the subdivision. There are 5 cases:
+
+\ifC
+\begin{itemize}
+ \item The point falls into some facet. The function returns \texttt{CV\_PTLOC\_INSIDE} and \texttt{*edge} will contain one of edges of the facet.
+ \item The point falls onto the edge. The function returns \texttt{CV\_PTLOC\_ON\_EDGE} and \texttt{*edge} will contain this edge.
+ \item The point coincides with one of the subdivision vertices. The function returns \texttt{CV\_PTLOC\_VERTEX} and \texttt{*vertex} will contain a pointer to the vertex.
+ \item The point is outside the subdivsion reference rectangle. The function returns \texttt{CV\_PTLOC\_OUTSIDE\_RECT} and no pointers are filled.
+ \item One of input arguments is invalid. A runtime error is raised or, if silent or "parent" error processing mode is selected, \\texttt{CV\_PTLOC\_ERROR} is returnd.
+\end{itemize}
+\fi
+
+\ifPython
+\begin{itemize}
+ \item The point falls into some facet. \texttt{loc} is \texttt{CV\_PTLOC\_INSIDE} and \texttt{where} is one of edges of the facet.
+ \item The point falls onto the edge. \texttt{loc} is \texttt{CV\_PTLOC\_ON\_EDGE} and \texttt{where} is the edge.
+ \item The point coincides with one of the subdivision vertices. \texttt{loc} is \texttt{CV\_PTLOC\_VERTEX} and \texttt{where} is the vertex.
+ \item The point is outside the subdivsion reference rectangle. \texttt{loc} is \texttt{CV\_PTLOC\_OUTSIDE\_RECT} and \texttt{where} is None.
+ \item One of input arguments is invalid. The function raises an exception.
+\end{itemize}
+\fi
+
+\cvfunc{FindNearestPoint2D}\label{FindNearestPoint2D}
+
+Finds the closest subdivision vertex to the given point.
+
+\cvexp{
+CvSubdiv2DPoint* cvFindNearestPoint2D( \par CvSubdiv2D* subdiv,\par CvPoint2D32f pt );
+}{CPP}{FindNearestPoint2D(subdiv,pt)-> point}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{subdiv}{Delaunay or another subdivision}
+\cvarg{pt}{Input point}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvFindNearestPoint2D} is another function that
+locates the input point within the subdivision. It finds the subdivision vertex that
+is the closest to the input point. It is not necessarily one of vertices
+of the facet containing the input point, though the facet (located using
+\cross{Subdiv2DLocate}) is used as a starting
+point. The function returns a pointer to the found subdivision vertex.
+
+\cvfunc{CalcSubdivVoronoi2D}\label{CalcSubdivVoronoi2D}
+
+Calculates the coordinates of Voronoi diagram cells.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvCalcSubdivVoronoi2D( \par CvSubdiv2D* subdiv );
+}{CPP}{CalcSubdivVoronoi2D(subdiv)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{subdiv}{Delaunay subdivision, in which all the points are already added}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvCalcSubdivVoronoi2D} calculates the coordinates
+of virtual points. All virtual points corresponding to some vertex of the
+original subdivision form (when connected together) a boundary of the Voronoi
+cell at that point.
+
+\cvfunc{ClearSubdivVoronoi2D}\label{ClearSubdivVoronoi2D}
+
+Removes all virtual points.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvClearSubdivVoronoi2D( CvSubdiv2D* subdiv );
+}{CPP}{ClearSubdivVoronoi2D(subdiv)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{subdiv}{Delaunay subdivision}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{ClearSubdivVoronoi2D} removes all of the virtual points. It
+is called internally in \cross{CalcSubdivVoronoi2D} if the subdivision
+was modified after previous call to the function.
+
+There are a few other lower-level functions that work with planar
+subdivisions, see cv.h and the sources. A demo script delaunay.c that
+builds a Delaunay triangulation and a Voronoi diagram of a random 2d point
+set can be found at opencv/samples/c.
+
+\section{Motion Analysis and Object Tracking Reference}
+
+\subsection{Accumulation of Background Statistics}
+
+\cvfunc{Acc}\label{Acc}
+
+Adds a frame to an accumulator.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvAcc( \par const CvArr* image,\par CvArr* sum,\par const CvArr* mask=NULL );
+}{CPP}{Acc(image,smu,mask=NULL)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{image}{Input image, 1- or 3-channel, 8-bit or 32-bit floating point. (each channel of multi-channel image is processed independently)}
+\cvarg{sum}{Accumulator with the same number of channels as input image, 32-bit or 64-bit floating-point}
+\cvarg{mask}{Optional operation mask}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvAcc} adds the whole image \texttt{image} or its selected region to the accumulator \texttt{sum}:
+
+\[ \texttt{sum}(x,y) \leftarrow \texttt{sum}(x,y) + \texttt{image}(x,y) \quad \text{if} \quad \texttt{mask}(x,y) \ne 0 \]
+
+\cvfunc{SquareAcc}\label{SquareAcc}
+
+Adds the square of the source image to the accumulator.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvSquareAcc( \par const CvArr* image,\par CvArr* sqsum,\par const CvArr* mask=NULL );
+}{CPP}{SquareAcc(image,sqsum,mask=NULL)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{image}{Input image, 1- or 3-channel, 8-bit or 32-bit floating point (each channel of multi-channel image is processed independently)}
+\cvarg{sqsum}{Accumulator with the same number of channels as input image, 32-bit or 64-bit floating-point}
+\cvarg{mask}{Optional operation mask}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvSquareAcc} adds the input image \texttt{image} or its selected region, raised to power 2, to the accumulator \texttt{sqsum}:
+
+\[ \texttt{sqsum}(x,y) \leftarrow \texttt{sqsum}(x,y) + \texttt{image}(x,y)^2 \quad \text{if} \quad \texttt{mask}(x,y) \ne 0 \]
+
+\cvfunc{MultiplyAcc}\label{MultiplyAcc}
+
+Adds the product of two input images to the accumulator.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvMultiplyAcc( \par const CvArr* image1,\par const CvArr* image2,\par CvArr* acc,\par const CvArr* mask=NULL );
+}{CPP}{MulitplyAcc(image1,image2,acc,mask=NULL)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{image1}{First input image, 1- or 3-channel, 8-bit or 32-bit floating point (each channel of multi-channel image is processed independently)}
+\cvarg{image2}{Second input image, the same format as the first one}
+\cvarg{acc}{Accumulator with the same number of channels as input images, 32-bit or 64-bit floating-point}
+\cvarg{mask}{Optional operation mask}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvMultiplyAcc} adds the product of 2 images or their selected regions to the accumulator \texttt{acc}:
+
+\[ \texttt{acc}(x,y) \leftarrow \texttt{acc}(x,y) + \texttt{image1}(x,y) \cdot \texttt{image2}(x,y) \quad \text{if} \quad \texttt{mask}(x,y) \ne 0 \]
+
+\cvfunc{RunningAvg}\label{RunningAvg}
+
+Updates the running average.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvRunningAvg( \par const CvArr* image,\par CvArr* acc,\par double alpha,\par const CvArr* mask=NULL );
+}{CPP}{RunningAvg(image,acc,alpha,mask=NULL)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{image}{Input image, 1- or 3-channel, 8-bit or 32-bit floating point (each channel of multi-channel image is processed independently)}
+\cvarg{acc}{Accumulator with the same number of channels as input image, 32-bit or 64-bit floating-point}
+\cvarg{alpha}{Weight of input image}
+\cvarg{mask}{Optional operation mask}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvRunningAvg} calculates the weighted sum of the input image
+\texttt{image} and the accumulator \texttt{acc} so that \texttt{acc}
+becomes a running average of frame sequence:
+
+\[ \texttt{acc}(x,y) \leftarrow (1-\alpha) \cdot \texttt{acc}(x,y) + \alpha \cdot \texttt{image}(x,y) \quad \text{if} \quad \texttt{mask}(x,y) \ne 0 \]
+
+where $\alpha$ (\texttt{alpha}) regulates the update speed (how fast the accumulator forgets about previous frames).
+
+\subsection{Motion Templates}
+
+\cvfunc{UpdateMotionHistory}\label{UpdateMotionHistory}
+
+Updates the motion history image by a moving silhouette.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvUpdateMotionHistory( \par const CvArr* silhouette,\par CvArr* mhi,\par double timestamp,\par double duration );
+}{CPP}{UpdateMotionHistory(silhouette,mhi,timestamp,duration)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{silhouette}{Silhouette mask that has non-zero pixels where the motion occurs}
+\cvarg{mhi}{Motion history image, that is updated by the function (single-channel, 32-bit floating-point)}
+\cvarg{timestamp}{Current time in milliseconds or other units}
+\cvarg{duration}{Maximal duration of the motion track in the same units as \texttt{timestamp}}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvUpdateMotionHistory} updates the motion history image as following:
+
+\[
+\texttt{mhi}(x,y)=\forkthree
+{\texttt{timestamp}}{if $\texttt{silhouette}(x,y) \ne 0$}
+{0}{if $\texttt{silhouette}(x,y) = 0$ and $\texttt{mhi} < (\texttt{timestamp} - \texttt{duration})$}
+{\texttt{mhi}(x,y)}{otherwise}
+\]
+That is, MHI pixels where motion occurs are set to the current timestamp, while the pixels where motion happened far ago are cleared.
+
+\cvfunc{CalcMotionGradient}\label{CalcMotionGradient}
+
+Calculates the gradient orientation of a motion history image.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvCalcMotionGradient( \par const CvArr* mhi,\par CvArr* mask,\par CvArr* orientation,\par double delta1,\par double delta2,\par int aperture\_size=3 );
+}{CPP}{CalcMotionGradient(mhi,mask,orientation,delta1,delta2,aperture\_size=3)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{mhi}{Motion history image}
+\cvarg{mask}{Mask image; marks pixels where the motion gradient data is correct; output parameter}
+\cvarg{orientation}{Motion gradient orientation image; contains angles from 0 to ~360 degrees }
+\cvarg{delta1, delta2}{The function finds the minimum ($m(x,y)$) and maximum ($M(x,y)$) mhi values over each pixel $(x,y)$ neighborhood and assumes the gradient is valid only if
+\[
+\min(\texttt{delta1} , \texttt{delta2} ) \le M(x,y)-m(x,y) \le \max(\texttt{delta1} ,\texttt{delta2} ).
+\]}
+\cvarg{aperture\_size}{Aperture size of derivative operators used by the function: CV\_SCHARR, 1, 3, 5 or 7 (see \cross{Sobel})}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvCalcMotionGradient} calculates the derivatives $Dx$ and $Dy$ of \texttt{mhi} and then calculates gradient orientation as:
+
+\[
+\texttt{orientation}(x,y)=\arctan{\frac{Dy(x,y)}{Dx(x,y)}}
+\]
+
+where both $Dx(x,y)$ and $Dy(x,y)$ signs are taken into account (as in the \cross{CartToPolar} function). After that \texttt{mask} is filled to indicate where the orientation is valid (see the \texttt{delta1} and \texttt{delta2} description).
+
+\cvfunc{CalcGlobalOrientation}\label{CalcGlobalOrientation}
+
+Calculates the global motion orientation of some selected region.
+
+\cvexp{
+double cvCalcGlobalOrientation( \par const CvArr* orientation,\par const CvArr* mask,\par const CvArr* mhi,\par double timestamp,\par double duration );
+}{CPP}{CalcGlobalOrientation(orientation,mask,mhi,timestamp,duration)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{orientation}{Motion gradient orientation image; calculated by the function \cross{CalcMotionGradient}}
+\cvarg{mask}{Mask image. It may be a conjunction of a valid gradient mask, obtained with \cross{CalcMotionGradient} and the mask of the region, whose direction needs to be calculated}
+\cvarg{mhi}{Motion history image}
+\cvarg{timestamp}{Current time in milliseconds or other units, it is better to store time passed to \cross{UpdateMotionHistory} before and reuse it here, because running \cross{UpdateMotionHistory} and \cross{CalcMotionGradient} on large images may take some time}
+\cvarg{duration}{Maximal duration of motion track in milliseconds, the same as \cross{UpdateMotionHistory}}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvCalcGlobalOrientation} calculates the general
+motion direction in the selected region and returns the angle between
+0 degrees and 360 degrees . At first the function builds the orientation histogram
+and finds the basic orientation as a coordinate of the histogram
+maximum. After that the function calculates the shift relative to the
+basic orientation as a weighted sum of all of the orientation vectors: the more
+recent the motion, the greater the weight. The resultant angle is
+a circular sum of the basic orientation and the shift.
+
+\cvfunc{SegmentMotion}\label{SegmentMotion}
+
+Segments a whole motion into separate moving parts.
+
+\cvexp{
+CvSeq* cvSegmentMotion( \par const CvArr* mhi,\par CvArr* seg\_mask,\par CvMemStorage* storage,\par double timestamp,\par double seg\_thresh );
+}{CPP}{SegmentMotion(mhi,seg\_mask,storage,timestamp,seg\_thresh)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{mhi}{Motion history image}
+\cvarg{seg\_mask}{Image where the mask found should be stored, single-channel, 32-bit floating-point}
+\cvarg{storage}{Memory storage that will contain a sequence of motion connected components}
+\cvarg{timestamp}{Current time in milliseconds or other units}
+\cvarg{seg\_thresh}{Segmentation threshold; recommended to be equal to the interval between motion history "steps" or greater}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvSegmentMotion} finds all of the motion segments and
+marks them in \texttt{seg\_mask} with individual values (1,2,...). It
+also returns a sequence of \cross{CvConnectedComp}
+structures, one for each motion component. After that the
+motion direction for every component can be calculated with
+\cross{CalcGlobalOrientation} using the extracted mask of the particular
+component \cross{Cmp}.
+
+\subsection{Object Tracking}
+
+\cvfunc{MeanShift}\label{MeanShift}
+
+Finds the object center on back projection.
+
+\cvexp{
+int cvMeanShift( \par const CvArr* prob\_image,\par CvRect window,\par CvTermCriteria criteria,\par CvConnectedComp* comp );
+}{CPP}{MeanShift(prob\_image,window,criteria)-> comp}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{prob\_image}{Back projection of the object histogram (see \cross{CalcBackProject})}
+\cvarg{window}{Initial search window}
+\cvarg{criteria}{Criteria applied to determine when the window search should be finished}
+\cvarg{comp}{Resultant structure that contains the converged search window coordinates (\texttt{comp->rect} field) and the sum of all of the pixels inside the window (\texttt{comp->area} field)}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvMeanShift} iterates to find the object center
+given its back projection and initial position of search window. The
+iterations are made until the search window center moves by less than
+the given value and/or until the function has done the maximum number
+of iterations. The function returns the number of iterations made.
+
+\cvfunc{CamShift}\label{CamShift}
+
+Finds the object center, size, and orientation.
+
+\cvexp{
+int cvCamShift( \par const CvArr* prob\_image,\par CvRect window,\par CvTermCriteria criteria,\par CvConnectedComp* comp,\par CvBox2D* box=NULL );
+}{CPP}{CamShift(prob\_image,window,criteria,box=NULL)-> comp}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{prob\_image}{Back projection of object histogram (see \cross{CalcBackProject})}
+\cvarg{window}{Initial search window}
+\cvarg{criteria}{Criteria applied to determine when the window search should be finished}
+\cvarg{comp}{Resultant structure that contains the converged search window coordinates (\texttt{comp->rect} field) and the sum of all of the pixels inside the window (\texttt{comp->area} field)}
+\cvarg{box}{Circumscribed box for the object. If not \texttt{NULL}, it contains object size and orientation}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvCamShift} implements the CAMSHIFT object tracking algrorithm
+\cross{Bradski98}.
+First, it finds an object center using \cross{MeanShift} and, after that, calculates the object size and orientation. The function returns number of iterations made within \cross{MeanShift}.
+
+The \cross{CvCamShiftTracker} class declared in cv.hpp implements the color object tracker that uses the function.
+
+\cvfunc{SnakeImage}\label{SnakeImage}
+
+Changes the contour position to minimize its energy.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvSnakeImage( \par const IplImage* image,\par CvPoint* points,\par int length,\par float* alpha,\par float* beta,\par float* gamma,\par int coeff\_usage,\par CvSize win,\par CvTermCriteria criteria,\par int calc\_gradient=1 );
+}{CPP}{SnakeImage(image,points,alpha,beta,gamma,coeff\_usage,win,criteria,calc\_gradient=1)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{image}{The source image or external energy field}
+\cvarg{points}{Contour points (snake)}
+\cvarg{length}{Number of points in the contour}
+\cvarg{alpha}{Weight[s] of continuity energy, single float or array of \texttt{length} floats, one for each contour point}
+\cvarg{beta}{Weight[s] of curvature energy, similar to \texttt{alpha}}
+\cvarg{gamma}{Weight[s] of image energy, similar to \texttt{alpha}}
+\cvarg{coeff\_usage}{Different uses of the previous three parameters:
+\begin{description}
+ \cvarg{CV\_VALUE}{indicates that each of \texttt{alpha, beta, gamma} is a pointer to a single value to be used for all points;}
+ \cvarg{CV\_ARRAY}{indicates that each of \texttt{alpha, beta, gamma} is a pointer to an array of coefficients different for all the points of the snake. All the arrays must have the size equal to the contour size.}
+\end{description}}
+\cvarg{win}{Size of neighborhood of every point used to search the minimum, both \texttt{win.width} and \texttt{win.height} must be odd}
+\cvarg{criteria}{Termination criteria}
+\cvarg{calc\_gradient}{Gradient flag; if not 0, the function calculates the gradient magnitude for every image pixel and consideres it as the energy field, otherwise the input image itself is considered}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvSnakeImage} updates the snake in order to minimize its
+total energy that is a sum of internal energy that depends on the contour
+shape (the smoother contour is, the smaller internal energy is) and
+external energy that depends on the energy field and reaches minimum at
+the local energy extremums that correspond to the image edges in the case
+of using an image gradient.
+
+The parameter \texttt{criteria.epsilon} is used to define the minimal
+number of points that must be moved during any iteration to keep the
+iteration process running.
+
+If at some iteration the number of moved points is less
+than \texttt{criteria.epsilon} or the function performed
+\texttt{criteria.max\_iter} iterations, the function terminates.
+
+\subsection{Optical Flow}
+
+\cvfunc{CalcOpticalFlowHS}\label{CalcOpticalFlowHS}
+
+Calculates the optical flow for two images.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvCalcOpticalFlowHS( \par const CvArr* prev,\par const CvArr* curr,\par int use\_previous,\par CvArr* velx,\par CvArr* vely,\par double lambda,\par CvTermCriteria criteria );
+}{CPP}{CalcOpticalFlowHS(prev,curr,use\_previous,velx,vely,lambda,criteria)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{prev}{First image, 8-bit, single-channel}
+\cvarg{curr}{Second image, 8-bit, single-channel}
+\cvarg{use\_previous}{Uses the previous (input) velocity field}
+\cvarg{velx}{Horizontal component of the optical flow of the same size as input images, 32-bit floating-point, single-channel}
+\cvarg{vely}{Vertical component of the optical flow of the same size as input images, 32-bit floating-point, single-channel}
+\cvarg{lambda}{Lagrangian multiplier}
+\cvarg{criteria}{Criteria of termination of velocity computing}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvCalcOpticalFlowHS} computes the flow for every pixel of the first input image using the Horn and Schunck algorithm
+\cross{Horn81}.
+
+\cvfunc{CalcOpticalFlowLK}\label{CalcOpticalFlowLK}
+
+Calculates the optical flow for two images.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvCalcOpticalFlowLK( \par const CvArr* prev,\par const CvArr* curr,\par CvSize win\_size,\par CvArr* velx,\par CvArr* vely );
+}{CPP}{CalcOpticalFlowLK(prev,curr,win\_size,velx,vely)-> None}
+\begin{description}
+
+\cvarg{prev}{First image, 8-bit, single-channel}
+\cvarg{curr}{Second image, 8-bit, single-channel}
+\cvarg{win\_size}{Size of the averaging window used for grouping pixels}
+\cvarg{velx}{Horizontal component of the optical flow of the same size as input images, 32-bit floating-point, single-channel}
+\cvarg{vely}{Vertical component of the optical flow of the same size as input images, 32-bit floating-point, single-channel}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvCalcOpticalFlowLK} computes the flow for every pixel of the first input image using the Lucas and Kanade algorithm
+\cross{Lucas81}.
+
+\cvfunc{CalcOpticalFlowBM}\label{CalcOpticalFlowBM}
+
+Calculates the optical flow for two images by using the block matching method.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvCalcOpticalFlowBM( \par const CvArr* prev,\par const CvArr* curr,\par CvSize block\_size,\par CvSize shift\_size,\par CvSize max\_range,\par int use\_previous,\par CvArr* velx,\par CvArr* vely );
+}{CPP}{CalcOpticalFlowBM(prev,curr,block\_size,shift\_size,max\_range,use\_previous,velx,vely)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{prev}{First image, 8-bit, single-channel}
+\cvarg{curr}{Second image, 8-bit, single-channel}
+\cvarg{block\_size}{Size of basic blocks that are compared}
+\cvarg{shift\_size}{Block coordinate increments}
+\cvarg{max\_range}{Size of the scanned neighborhood in pixels around the block}
+\cvarg{use\_previous}{Uses the previous (input) velocity field}
+\cvarg{velx}{Horizontal component of the optical flow of
+\[
+\left\lfloor \frac{\texttt{prev->width} - \texttt{block\_size.width}}{\texttt{shiftSize.width}} \right\rfloor
+\times
+\left\lfloor \frac{\texttt{prev->height} - \texttt{block\_size.height}}{\texttt{shiftSize.height}} \right\rfloor
+\]
+size, 32-bit floating-point, single-channel}
+\cvarg{vely}{Vertical component of the optical flow of the same size \texttt{velx}, 32-bit floating-point, single-channel}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{CalcOpticalFlowBM} calculates the optical
+flow for overlapped blocks $\texttt{block\_size.width} \times
+\texttt{block\_size.height}$ pixels each, thus the velocity
+fields are smaller than the original images. For every block
+in \texttt{prev} the functions tries to find a similar block in
+\texttt{curr} in some neighborhood of the original block or shifted by
+(velx(x0,y0),vely(x0,y0)) block as has been calculated by previous
+function call (if \texttt{use\_previous=1})
+
+\cvfunc{CalcOpticalFlowPyrLK}\label{CalcOpticalFlowPyrLK}
+
+Calculates the optical flow for a sparse feature set using the iterative Lucas-Kanade method with pyramids.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvCalcOpticalFlowPyrLK( \par const CvArr* prev,\par const CvArr* curr,\par CvArr* prev\_pyr,\par CvArr* curr\_pyr,\par const CvPoint2D32f* prev\_features,\par CvPoint2D32f* curr\_features,\par int count,\par CvSize win\_size,\par int level,\par char* status,\par float* track\_error,\par CvTermCriteria criteria,\par int flags );
+}{CPP}{
+CalcOpticalFlowPyrLK( prev, curr, prev\_pyr, curr\_pyr, prev\_features, CvSize win\_size, int level, criteria, flags, guesses = None) -> (curr\_features, status, track\_error)
+}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{prev}{First frame, at time \texttt{t}}
+\cvarg{curr}{Second frame, at time \texttt{t + dt} }
+\cvarg{prev\_pyr}{Buffer for the pyramid for the first frame. If the pointer is not \texttt{NULL} , the buffer must have a sufficient size to store the pyramid from level \texttt{1} to level \texttt{level} ; the total size of \texttt{(image\_width+8)*image\_height/3} bytes is sufficient}
+\cvarg{curr\_pyr}{Similar to \texttt{prev\_pyr}, used for the second frame}
+\cvarg{prev\_features}{Array of points for which the flow needs to be found}
+\cvarg{curr\_features}{Array of 2D points containing the calculated new positions of the input features in the second image}
+\cvarg{count}{Number of feature points}
+\cvarg{win\_size}{Size of the search window of each pyramid level}
+\cvarg{level}{Maximal pyramid level number. If \texttt{0} , pyramids are not used (single level), if \texttt{1} , two levels are used, etc}
+\cvarg{status}{Array. Every element of the array is set to \texttt{1} if the flow for the corresponding feature has been found, \texttt{0} otherwise}
+\cvarg{error}{Array of double numbers containing the difference between patches around the original and moved points. Optional parameter; can be \texttt{NULL }}
+\cvarg{criteria}{Specifies when the iteration process of finding the flow for each point on each pyramid level should be stopped}
+\cvarg{flags}{Miscellaneous flags:
+\begin{description}
+ \cvarg{CV\_LKFLOW\_PYR\_A\_READY}{pyramid for the first frame is precalculated before the call}
+ \cvarg{CV\_LKFLOW\_PYR\_B\_READY}{ pyramid for the second frame is precalculated before the call}
+ \cvC{\cvarg{CV\_LKFLOW\_INITIAL\_GUESSES}{array B contains initial coordinates of features before the function call}}
+\end{description}}
+\cvPy{\cvarg{guesses}{optional array of estimated coordinates of features in second frame, with same length as \texttt{prev_features}}}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvCalcOpticalFlowPyrLK} implements the sparse iterative version of the Lucas-Kanade optical flow in pyramids
+\cross{Bouguet00}
+. It calculates the coordinates of the feature points on the current video
+frame given their coordinates on the previous frame. The function finds
+the coordinates with sub-pixel accuracy.
+
+Both parameters \texttt{prev\_pyr} and \texttt{curr\_pyr} comply with the
+following rules: if the image pointer is 0, the function allocates the
+buffer internally, calculates the pyramid, and releases the buffer after
+processing. Otherwise, the function calculates the pyramid and stores
+it in the buffer unless the flag \texttt{CV\_LKFLOW\_PYR\_A[B]\_READY}
+is set. The image should be large enough to fit the Gaussian pyramid
+data. After the function call both pyramids are calculated and the
+readiness flag for the corresponding image can be set in the next call
+(i.e., typically, for all the image pairs except the very first one
+\texttt{CV\_LKFLOW\_PYR\_A\_READY} is set).
+
+\ifC
+\subsection{Estimators}
+
+\cvfunc{CvKalman}\label{CvKalman}
+
+Kalman filter state.
+
+'changequote(KLAK,KLOK)
+\begin{lstlisting}
+typedef struct CvKalman
+{
+ int MP; /* number of measurement vector dimensions */
+ int DP; /* number of state vector dimensions */
+ int CP; /* number of control vector dimensions */
+
+ /* backward compatibility fields */
+#if 1
+ float* PosterState; /* =state_pre->data.fl */
+ float* PriorState; /* =state_post->data.fl */
+ float* DynamMatr; /* =transition_matrix->data.fl */
+ float* MeasurementMatr; /* =measurement_matrix->data.fl */
+ float* MNCovariance; /* =measurement_noise_cov->data.fl */
+ float* PNCovariance; /* =process_noise_cov->data.fl */
+ float* KalmGainMatr; /* =gain->data.fl */
+ float* PriorErrorCovariance;/* =error_cov_pre->data.fl */
+ float* PosterErrorCovariance;/* =error_cov_post->data.fl */
+ float* Temp1; /* temp1->data.fl */
+ float* Temp2; /* temp2->data.fl */
+#endif
+
+ CvMat* state_pre; /* predicted state (x'(k)):
+ x(k)=A*x(k-1)+B*u(k) */
+ CvMat* state_post; /* corrected state (x(k)):
+ x(k)=x'(k)+K(k)*(z(k)-H*x'(k)) */
+ CvMat* transition_matrix; /* state transition matrix (A) */
+ CvMat* control_matrix; /* control matrix (B)
+ (it is not used if there is no control)*/
+ CvMat* measurement_matrix; /* measurement matrix (H) */
+ CvMat* process_noise_cov; /* process noise covariance matrix (Q) */
+ CvMat* measurement_noise_cov; /* measurement noise covariance matrix (R) */
+ CvMat* error_cov_pre; /* priori error estimate covariance matrix (P'(k)):
+ P'(k)=A*P(k-1)*At + Q*/
+ CvMat* gain; /* Kalman gain matrix (K(k)):
+ K(k)=P'(k)*Ht*inv(H*P'(k)*Ht+R)*/
+ CvMat* error_cov_post; /* posteriori error estimate covariance matrix (P(k)):
+ P(k)=(I-K(k)*H)*P'(k) */
+ CvMat* temp1; /* temporary matrices */
+ CvMat* temp2;
+ CvMat* temp3;
+ CvMat* temp4;
+ CvMat* temp5;
+}
+CvKalman;
+\end{lstlisting}
+changequote`''
+
+The structure \texttt{CvKalman} is used to keep the Kalman filter
+state. It is created by the \cross{CreateKalman} function, updated
+by the \cross{KalmanPredict} and \cross{KalmanCorrect} functions
+and released by the \cross{ReleaseKalman} function. Normally, the
+structure is used for the standard Kalman filter (notation and the
+formulas below are borrowed from the excellent Kalman tutorial
+\cross{Welch95}
+
+\[
+x_k=A \cdot x_{k-1}+B \cdot u_k+w_k
+z_k=H \cdot x_k+v_k
+\]
+
+where:
+
+\[
+\begin{array}{l l}
+x_k (x{k-1}) & \text{state of the system at the moment $k$ $(k-1)$ }\\
+z_k & \text{measurement of the system state at the moment $k$}\\
+u_k & \text{external control applied at the moment $k$}
+\end{array}
+\]
+
+$w_k$ and $v_k$ are normally-distributed process and measurement noise, respectively:
+
+\[
+\begin{array}{l}
+p(w) \sim N(0,Q)\\
+p(v) \sim N(0,R)
+\end{array}
+\]
+
+that is,
+
+$Q$ process noise covariance matrix, constant or variable,
+
+$R$ measurement noise covariance matrix, constant or variable
+
+In the case of the standard Kalman filter, all of the matrices: A, B, H, Q and R are initialized once after the \cross{CvKalman} structure is allocated via \cross{CreateKalman}. However, the same structure and the same functions may be used to simulate the extended Kalman filter by linearizing the extended Kalman filter equation in the current system state neighborhood, in this case A, B, H (and, probably, Q and R) should be updated on every step.
+
+\cvfunc{CreateKalman}\label{CreateKalman}
+
+Allocates the Kalman filter structure.
+
+\cvexp{
+CvKalman* cvCreateKalman( \par int dynam\_params,\par int measure\_params,\par int control\_params=0 );
+}{CPP}{PYTHON}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{dynam\_params}{dimensionality of the state vector}
+\cvarg{measure\_params}{dimensionality of the measurement vector}
+\cvarg{control\_params}{dimensionality of the control vector}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvCreateKalman} allocates \cross{CvKalman} and all its matrices and initializes them somehow.
+
+\cvfunc{ReleaseKalman}\label{ReleaseKalman}
+
+Deallocates the Kalman filter structure.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvReleaseKalman( \par CvKalman** kalman );
+}{CPP}{PYTHON}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{kalman}{double pointer to the Kalman filter structure}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvReleaseKalman} releases the structure \cross{CvKalman} and all of the underlying matrices.
+
+\cvfunc{KalmanPredict}\label{KalmanPredict}
+
+Estimates the subsequent model state.
+
+\cvexp{
+const CvMat* cvKalmanPredict( \par CvKalman* kalman, \par const CvMat* control=NULL );
+}{CPP}{PYTHON}
+\begin{lstlisting}
+#define cvKalmanUpdateByTime cvKalmanPredict
+\end{lstlisting}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{kalman}{Kalman filter state}
+\cvarg{control}{Control vector $u_k$, should be NULL iff there is no external control (\texttt{control\_params} =0)}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvKalmanPredict} estimates the subsequent stochastic model state by its current state and stores it at \texttt{kalman->state\_pre}:
+
+\[
+\begin{array}{l}
+x'_k=A \cdot x_k+B \cdot u_k\\
+P'_k=A \cdot P_{k-1}+A^T + Q
+\end{array}
+\]
+
+where
+
+\begin{tabular}{l p{5 in}}
+$x'_k$ & is predicted state \texttt{kalman->state\_pre},\\
+$x_{k-1}$ & is corrected state on the previous step \texttt{kalman->state\_post}
+ (should be initialized somehow in the beginning, zero vector by default),\\
+$u_k$ & is external control (\texttt{control} parameter),\\
+$P'_k$ & is priori error covariance matrix \texttt{kalman->error\_cov\_pre}\\
+$P_{k-1}$ & is posteriori error covariance matrix on the previous step \texttt{kalman->error\_cov\_post}
+ (should be initialized somehow in the beginning, identity matrix by default),
+\end{tabular}
+
+The function returns the estimated state.
+
+\cvfunc{KalmanCorrect}\label{KalmanCorrect}
+
+Adjusts the model state.
+
+\cvexp{
+const CvMat* cvKalmanCorrect( CvKalman* kalman, const CvMat* measurement );
+}{CPP}{PYTHON}
+
+\begin{lstlisting}
+#define cvKalmanUpdateByMeasurement cvKalmanCorrect
+\end{lstlisting}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{kalman}{Pointer to the structure to be updated}
+\cvarg{measurement}{Pointer to the structure CvMat containing the measurement vector}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvKalmanCorrect} adjusts the stochastic model state on the basis of the given measurement of the model state:
+
+\[
+\begin{array}{l}
+K_k=P'_k \cdot H^T \cdot (H \cdot P'_k \cdot H^T+R)^{-1}\\
+x_k=x'_k+K_k \cdot (z_k-H \cdot x'_k)\\
+P_k=(I-K_k \cdot H) \cdot P'_k
+\end{array}
+\]
+
+where
+
+\begin{tabular}{l p{4 in}}
+$z_k$ & given measurement (\texttt{mesurement} parameter)\\
+$K_k$ & Kalman "gain" matrix.
+\end{tabular}
+
+The function stores the adjusted state at \texttt{kalman->state\_post} and returns it on output.
+
+\cvfunc{Example. Using Kalman filter to track a rotating point}
+\begin{lstlisting}
+#include "cv.h"
+#include "highgui.h"
+#include <math.h>
+
+int main(int argc, char** argv)
+{
+ /* A matrix data */
+ const float A[] = { 1, 1, 0, 1 };
+
+ IplImage* img = cvCreateImage( cvSize(500,500), 8, 3 );
+ CvKalman* kalman = cvCreateKalman( 2, 1, 0 );
+ /* state is (phi, delta_phi) - angle and angle increment */
+ CvMat* state = cvCreateMat( 2, 1, CV_32FC1 );
+ CvMat* process_noise = cvCreateMat( 2, 1, CV_32FC1 );
+ /* only phi (angle) is measured */
+ CvMat* measurement = cvCreateMat( 1, 1, CV_32FC1 );
+ CvRandState rng;
+ int code = -1;
+
+ cvRandInit( &rng, 0, 1, -1, CV_RAND_UNI );
+
+ cvZero( measurement );
+ cvNamedWindow( "Kalman", 1 );
+
+ for(;;)
+ {
+ cvRandSetRange( &rng, 0, 0.1, 0 );
+ rng.disttype = CV_RAND_NORMAL;
+
+ cvRand( &rng, state );
+
+ memcpy( kalman->transition_matrix->data.fl, A, sizeof(A));
+ cvSetIdentity( kalman->measurement_matrix, cvRealScalar(1) );
+ cvSetIdentity( kalman->process_noise_cov, cvRealScalar(1e-5) );
+ cvSetIdentity( kalman->measurement_noise_cov, cvRealScalar(1e-1) );
+ cvSetIdentity( kalman->error_cov_post, cvRealScalar(1));
+ /* choose random initial state */
+ cvRand( &rng, kalman->state_post );
+
+ rng.disttype = CV_RAND_NORMAL;
+
+ for(;;)
+ {
+ #define calc_point(angle) \
+ cvPoint( cvRound(img->width/2 + img->width/3*cos(angle)), \
+ cvRound(img->height/2 - img->width/3*sin(angle)))
+
+ float state_angle = state->data.fl[0];
+ CvPoint state_pt = calc_point(state_angle);
+
+ /* predict point position */
+ const CvMat* prediction = cvKalmanPredict( kalman, 0 );
+ float predict_angle = prediction->data.fl[0];
+ CvPoint predict_pt = calc_point(predict_angle);
+ float measurement_angle;
+ CvPoint measurement_pt;
+
+ cvRandSetRange( &rng,
+ 0,
+ sqrt(kalman->measurement_noise_cov->data.fl[0]),
+ 0 );
+ cvRand( &rng, measurement );
+
+ /* generate measurement */
+ cvMatMulAdd( kalman->measurement_matrix, state, measurement, measurement );
+
+ measurement_angle = measurement->data.fl[0];
+ measurement_pt = calc_point(measurement_angle);
+
+ /* plot points */
+ #define draw_cross( center, color, d ) \
+ cvLine( img, cvPoint( center.x - d, center.y - d ), \
+ cvPoint( center.x + d, center.y + d ), \
+ color, 1, 0 ); \
+ cvLine( img, cvPoint( center.x + d, center.y - d ), \
+ cvPoint( center.x - d, center.y + d ), \
+ color, 1, 0 )
+
+ cvZero( img );
+ draw_cross( state_pt, CV_RGB(255,255,255), 3 );
+ draw_cross( measurement_pt, CV_RGB(255,0,0), 3 );
+ draw_cross( predict_pt, CV_RGB(0,255,0), 3 );
+ cvLine( img, state_pt, predict_pt, CV_RGB(255,255,0), 3, 0 );
+
+ /* adjust Kalman filter state */
+ cvKalmanCorrect( kalman, measurement );
+
+ cvRandSetRange( &rng,
+ 0,
+ sqrt(kalman->process_noise_cov->data.fl[0]),
+ 0 );
+ cvRand( &rng, process_noise );
+ cvMatMulAdd( kalman->transition_matrix,
+ state,
+ process_noise,
+ state );
+
+ cvShowImage( "Kalman", img );
+ code = cvWaitKey( 100 );
+
+ if( code > 0 ) /* break current simulation by pressing a key */
+ break;
+ }
+ if( code == 27 ) /* exit by ESCAPE */
+ break;
+ }
+
+ return 0;
+}
+\end{lstlisting}
+
+\cvfunc{CvConDensation}\label{CvConDensation}
+
+ConDenstation state.
+
+\begin{lstlisting}
+ typedef struct CvConDensation
+ {
+ int MP; //Dimension of measurement vector
+ int DP; // Dimension of state vector
+ float* DynamMatr; // Matrix of the linear Dynamics system
+ float* State; // Vector of State
+ int SamplesNum; // Number of the Samples
+ float** flSamples; // array of the Sample Vectors
+ float** flNewSamples; // temporary array of the Sample Vectors
+ float* flConfidence; // Confidence for each Sample
+ float* flCumulative; // Cumulative confidence
+ float* Temp; // Temporary vector
+ float* RandomSample; // RandomVector to update sample set
+ CvRandState* RandS; // Array of structures to generate random vectors
+ } CvConDensation;
+
+\end{lstlisting}
+The structure \texttt{CvConDensation} stores the CONditional DENSity propagATION tracker state. The information about the algorithm can be found at \url{http://www.dai.ed.ac.uk/CVonline/LOCAL\_COPIES/ISARD1/condensation.html}.
+
+\cvfunc{CreateConDensation}\label{CreateConDensation}
+
+Allocates the ConDensation filter structure.
+
+\cvexp{
+CvConDensation* cvCreateConDensation( \par int dynam\_params,\par int measure\_params,\par int sample\_count );
+}{CPP}{PYTHON}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{dynam\_params}{Dimension of the state vector}
+\cvarg{measure\_params}{Dimension of the measurement vector}
+\cvarg{sample\_count}{Number of samples}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvCreateConDensation} creates a \texttt{CvConDensation} structure and returns a pointer to the structure.
+
+\cvfunc{ReleaseConDensation}\label{ReleaseConDensation}
+
+Deallocates the ConDensation filter structure.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvReleaseConDensation( CvConDensation** condens );
+
+}{CPP}{PYTHON}
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{condens}{Pointer to the pointer to the structure to be released}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvReleaseConDensation} releases the structure \cross{CvConDensation}) and frees all memory previously allocated for the structure.
+
+\cvfunc{ConDensInitSampleSet}\label{ConDensInitSampleSet}
+
+Initializes the sample set for the ConDensation algorithm.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvConDensInitSampleSet( CvConDensation* condens, \par CvMat* lower\_bound, \par CvMat* upper\_bound );
+}{CPP}{PYTHON}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{condens}{Pointer to a structure to be initialized}
+\cvarg{lower\_bound}{Vector of the lower boundary for each dimension}
+\cvarg{upper\_bound}{Vector of the upper boundary for each dimension}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvConDensInitSampleSet} fills the samples arrays in the structure \cross{CvConDensation} with values within the specified ranges.
+
+\cvfunc{ConDensUpdateByTime}\label{ConDensUpdateByTime}
+
+Estimates the subsequent model state.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvConDensUpdateByTime( \par CvConDensation* condens );
+}{CPP}{PYTHON}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{condens}{Pointer to the structure to be updated}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvConDensUpdateByTime} estimates the subsequent stochastic model state from its current state.
+\fi
+
+\section{Pattern Recognition}
+
+\subsection{Object Detection}
+
+The object detector described below has been initially proposed by Paul Viola
+\cross{Viola01}
+and improved by Rainer Lienhart
+\cross{Lienhart02}
+. First, a classifier (namely a \emph{cascade of boosted classifiers working with haar-like features}) is trained with a few hundred sample views of a particular object (i.e., a face or a car), called positive examples, that are scaled to the same size (say, 20x20), and negative examples - arbitrary images of the same size.
+
+After a classifier is trained, it can be applied to a region of interest
+(of the same size as used during the training) in an input image. The
+classifier outputs a "1" if the region is likely to show the object
+(i.e., face/car), and "0" otherwise. To search for the object in the
+whole image one can move the search window across the image and check
+every location using the classifier. The classifier is designed so that
+it can be easily "resized" in order to be able to find the objects of
+interest at different sizes, which is more efficient than resizing the
+image itself. So, to find an object of an unknown size in the image the
+scan procedure should be done several times at different scales.
+
+The word "cascade" in the classifier name means that the resultant
+classifier consists of several simpler classifiers (\emph{stages}) that
+are applied subsequently to a region of interest until at some stage the
+candidate is rejected or all the stages are passed. The word "boosted"
+means that the classifiers at every stage of the cascade are complex
+themselves and they are built out of basic classifiers using one of four
+different \texttt{boosting} techniques (weighted voting). Currently
+Discrete Adaboost, Real Adaboost, Gentle Adaboost and Logitboost are
+supported. The basic classifiers are decision-tree classifiers with at
+least 2 leaves. Haar-like features are the input to the basic classifers,
+and are calculated as described below. The current algorithm uses the
+following Haar-like features:
+
+\includegraphics[width=0.5\textwidth]{pics/haarfeatures.png}
+
+The feature used in a particular classifier is specified by its shape (1a, 2b etc.), position within the region of interest and the scale (this scale is not the same as the scale used at the detection stage, though these two scales are multiplied). For example, in the case of the third line feature (2c) the response is calculated as the difference between the sum of image pixels under the rectangle covering the whole feature (including the two white stripes and the black stripe in the middle) and the sum of the image pixels under the black stripe multiplied by 3 in order to compensate for the differences in the size of areas. The sums of pixel values over a rectangular regions are calculated rapidly using integral images (see below and the \cross{Integral} description).
+
+\ifPython
+A simple demonstration of face detection, which draws a rectangle around each detected face:
+
+\begin{lstlisting}
+
+hc = cv.Load("haarcascade_frontalface_default.xml")
+img = cv.LoadImage("faces.jpg", 0)
+faces = cv.HaarDetectObjects(img, hc, cv.CreateMemStorage())
+for (x,y,w,h),n in faces:
+ cv.Rectangle(img, (x,y), (x+w,y+h), 255)
+cv.SaveImage("faces_detected.jpg", img)
+
+\end{lstlisting}
+
+\fi
+
+\ifC
+To see the object detector at work, have a look at the HaarFaceDetect demo.
+
+The following reference is for the detection part only. There
+is a separate application called \texttt{haartraining} that can
+train a cascade of boosted classifiers from a set of samples. See
+\texttt{opencv/apps/haartraining} for details.
+
+\cvfunc{CvHaarFeature, CvHaarClassifier, CvHaarStageClassifier, CvHaarClassifierCascade}
+\label{CvHaarFeature}
+\label{CvHaarClassifier}
+\label{CvHaarStageClassifier}
+\label{CvHaarClassifierCascade}
+
+Boosted Haar classifier structures.
+
+\begin{lstlisting}
+#define CV_HAAR_FEATURE_MAX 3
+
+/* a haar feature consists of 2-3 rectangles with appropriate weights */
+typedef struct CvHaarFeature
+{
+ int tilted; /* 0 means up-right feature, 1 means 45--rotated feature */
+
+ /* 2-3 rectangles with weights of opposite signs and
+ with absolute values inversely proportional to the areas of the
+ rectangles. If rect[2].weight !=0, then
+ the feature consists of 3 rectangles, otherwise it consists of 2 */
+ struct
+ {
+ CvRect r;
+ float weight;
+ } rect[CV_HAAR_FEATURE_MAX];
+}
+CvHaarFeature;
+
+/* a single tree classifier (stump in the simplest case) that returns the
+ response for the feature at the particular image location (i.e. pixel
+ sum over subrectangles of the window) and gives out a value depending
+ on the response */
+typedef struct CvHaarClassifier
+{
+ int count; /* number of nodes in the decision tree */
+
+ /* these are "parallel" arrays. Every index \texttt{i}
+ corresponds to a node of the decision tree (root has 0-th index).
+
+ left[i] - index of the left child (or negated index if the
+ left child is a leaf)
+ right[i] - index of the right child (or negated index if the
+ right child is a leaf)
+ threshold[i] - branch threshold. if feature responce is <= threshold,
+ left branch is chosen, otherwise right branch is chosen.
+ alpha[i] - output value correponding to the leaf. */
+ CvHaarFeature* haar_feature;
+ float* threshold;
+ int* left;
+ int* right;
+ float* alpha;
+}
+CvHaarClassifier;
+
+/* a boosted battery of classifiers(=stage classifier):
+ the stage classifier returns 1
+ if the sum of the classifiers responses
+ is greater than \texttt{threshold} and 0 otherwise */
+typedef struct CvHaarStageClassifier
+{
+ int count; /* number of classifiers in the battery */
+ float threshold; /* threshold for the boosted classifier */
+ CvHaarClassifier* classifier; /* array of classifiers */
+
+ /* these fields are used for organizing trees of stage classifiers,
+ rather than just stright cascades */
+ int next;
+ int child;
+ int parent;
+}
+CvHaarStageClassifier;
+
+typedef struct CvHidHaarClassifierCascade CvHidHaarClassifierCascade;
+
+/* cascade or tree of stage classifiers */
+typedef struct CvHaarClassifierCascade
+{
+ int flags; /* signature */
+ int count; /* number of stages */
+ CvSize orig_window_size; /* original object size (the cascade is
+ trained for) */
+
+ /* these two parameters are set by cvSetImagesForHaarClassifierCascade */
+ CvSize real_window_size; /* current object size */
+ double scale; /* current scale */
+ CvHaarStageClassifier* stage_classifier; /* array of stage classifiers */
+ CvHidHaarClassifierCascade* hid_cascade; /* hidden optimized
+ representation of the
+ cascade, created by
+ cvSetImagesForHaarClassifierCascade */
+}
+CvHaarClassifierCascade;
+\end{lstlisting}
+
+All the structures are used for representing a cascaded of boosted Haar classifiers. The cascade has the following hierarchical structure:
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+ Cascade:
+ Stage,,1,,:
+ Classifier,,11,,:
+ Feature,,11,,
+ Classifier,,12,,:
+ Feature,,12,,
+ ...
+ Stage,,2,,:
+ Classifier,,21,,:
+ Feature,,21,,
+ ...
+ ...
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The whole hierarchy can be constructed manually or loaded from a file or an embedded base using the function \cross{LoadHaarClassifierCascade}.
+
+
+\cvfunc{LoadHaarClassifierCascade}\label{LoadHaarClassifierCascade}
+
+Loads a trained cascade classifier from a file or the classifier database embedded in OpenCV.
+
+\cvexp{
+CvHaarClassifierCascade* cvLoadHaarClassifierCascade( \par const char* directory,\par CvSize orig\_window\_size );
+}{CPP}{PYTHON}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{directory}{Name of the directory containing the description of a trained cascade classifier}
+\cvarg{orig\_window\_size}{Original size of the objects the cascade has been trained on. Note that it is not stored in the cascade and therefore must be specified separately}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvLoadHaarClassifierCascade} loads a trained cascade
+of haar classifiers from a file or the classifier database embedded in
+OpenCV. The base can be trained using the \texttt{haartraining} application
+(see opencv/apps/haartraining for details).
+
+\textbf{The function is obsolete}. Nowadays object detection classifiers are stored in XML or YAML files, rather than in directories. To load a cascade from a file, use the \cross{Load} function.
+
+\cvfunc{ReleaseHaarClassifierCascade}\label{ReleaseHaarClassifierCascade}
+
+Releases the haar classifier cascade.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvReleaseHaarClassifierCascade( \par CvHaarClassifierCascade** cascade );
+}{CPP}{PYTHON}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{cascade}{Double pointer to the released cascade. The pointer is cleared by the function}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvReleaseHaarClassifierCascade} deallocates the cascade that has been created manually or loaded using \cross{LoadHaarClassifierCascade} or \cross{Load}.
+
+\cvfunc{HaarDetectObjects}\label{HaarDetectObjects}
+
+Detects objects in the image.
+
+\begin{lstlisting}
+typedef struct CvAvgComp
+{
+ CvRect rect; /* bounding rectangle for the object (average rectangle of a group) */
+ int neighbors; /* number of neighbor rectangles in the group */
+}
+CvAvgComp;
+\end{lstlisting}
+
+\fi
+
+\cvexp{
+CvSeq* cvHaarDetectObjects( \par const CvArr* image,\par CvHaarClassifierCascade* cascade,\par CvMemStorage* storage,\par double scale\_factor=1.1,\par int min\_neighbors=3,\par int flags=0,\par CvSize min\_size=cvSize(0,\par0) );
+}{CPP}{HaarDetectObjects(image,cascade,storage,scale\_factor=1.1,min\_neighbors=3,flags=0,min\_size=(0,0))-> detected\_objects}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{image}{Image to detect objects in}
+\cvarg{cascade}{Haar classifier cascade in internal representation}
+\cvarg{storage}{Memory storage to store the resultant sequence of the object candidate rectangles}
+\cvarg{scale\_factor}{The factor by which the search window is scaled between the subsequent scans, 1.1 means increasing window by 10\% }
+\cvarg{min\_neighbors}{Minimum number (minus 1) of neighbor rectangles that makes up an object. All the groups of a smaller number of rectangles than \texttt{min\_neighbors}-1 are rejected. If \texttt{min\_neighbors} is 0, the function does not any grouping at all and returns all the detected candidate rectangles, which may be useful if the user wants to apply a customized grouping procedure}
+\cvarg{flags}{Mode of operation. Currently the only flag that may be specified is \texttt{CV\_HAAR\_DO\_CANNY\_PRUNING}. If it is set, the function uses Canny edge detector to reject some image regions that contain too few or too much edges and thus can not contain the searched object. The particular threshold values are tuned for face detection and in this case the pruning speeds up the processing}
+\cvarg{min\_size}{Minimum window size. By default, it is set to the size of samples the classifier has been trained on ($\sim 20\times 20$ for face detection)}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvHaarDetectObjects} finds rectangular regions in the given image that are likely to contain objects the cascade has been trained for and returns those regions as a sequence of rectangles. The function scans the image several times at different scales (see \cross{SetImagesForHaarClassifierCascade}). Each time it considers overlapping regions in the image and applies the classifiers to the regions using \cross{RunHaarClassifierCascade}. It may also apply some heuristics to reduce number of analyzed regions, such as Canny prunning. After it has proceeded and collected the candidate rectangles (regions that passed the classifier cascade), it groups them and returns a sequence of average rectangles for each large enough group. The default parameters (\texttt{scale\_factor} =1.1, \texttt{min\_neighbors} =3, \texttt{flags} =0) are tuned for accurate yet slow object detection. For a faster operation on real video images the settings are: \texttt{scale\_factor} =1.2, \texttt{min\_neighbors} =2, \texttt{flags} =\texttt{CV\_HAAR\_DO\_CANNY\_PRUNING}, \texttt{min\_size} =\textit{minimum possible face size} (for example, $\sim$ 1/4 to 1/16 of the image area in the case of video conferencing).
+
+\ifC
+% ===== Example. Using cascade of Haar classifiers to find objects (e.g. faces). =====
+\begin{lstlisting}
+#include "cv.h"
+#include "highgui.h"
+
+CvHaarClassifierCascade* load_object_detector( const char* cascade_path )
+{
+ return (CvHaarClassifierCascade*)cvLoad( cascade_path );
+}
+
+void detect_and_draw_objects( IplImage* image,
+ CvHaarClassifierCascade* cascade,
+ int do_pyramids )
+{
+ IplImage* small_image = image;
+ CvMemStorage* storage = cvCreateMemStorage(0);
+ CvSeq* faces;
+ int i, scale = 1;
+
+ /* if the flag is specified, down-scale the input image to get a
+ performance boost w/o loosing quality (perhaps) */
+ if( do_pyramids )
+ {
+ small_image = cvCreateImage( cvSize(image->width/2,image->height/2), IPL_DEPTH_8U, 3 );
+ cvPyrDown( image, small_image, CV_GAUSSIAN_5x5 );
+ scale = 2;
+ }
+
+ /* use the fastest variant */
+ faces = cvHaarDetectObjects( small_image, cascade, storage, 1.2, 2, CV_HAAR_DO_CANNY_PRUNING );
+
+ /* draw all the rectangles */
+ for( i = 0; i < faces->total; i++ )
+ {
+ /* extract the rectanlges only */
+ CvRect face_rect = *(CvRect*)cvGetSeqElem( faces, i, 0 );
+ cvRectangle( image, cvPoint(face_rect.x*scale,face_rect.y*scale),
+ cvPoint((face_rect.x+face_rect.width)*scale,
+ (face_rect.y+face_rect.height)*scale),
+ CV_RGB(255,0,0), 3 );
+ }
+
+ if( small_image != image )
+ cvReleaseImage( &small_image );
+ cvReleaseMemStorage( &storage );
+}
+
+/* takes image filename and cascade path from the command line */
+int main( int argc, char** argv )
+{
+ IplImage* image;
+ if( argc==3 && (image = cvLoadImage( argv[1], 1 )) != 0 )
+ {
+ CvHaarClassifierCascade* cascade = load_object_detector(argv[2]);
+ detect_and_draw_objects( image, cascade, 1 );
+ cvNamedWindow( "test", 0 );
+ cvShowImage( "test", image );
+ cvWaitKey(0);
+ cvReleaseHaarClassifierCascade( &cascade );
+ cvReleaseImage( &image );
+ }
+
+ return 0;
+}
+\end{lstlisting}
+
+\cvfunc{SetImagesForHaarClassifierCascade}\label{SetImagesForHaarClassifierCascade}
+
+Assigns images to the hidden cascade.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvSetImagesForHaarClassifierCascade( \par CvHaarClassifierCascade* cascade,\par const CvArr* sum,\par const CvArr* sqsum,\par const CvArr* tilted\_sum,\par double scale );
+}{CPP}{PYTHON}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{cascade}{Hidden Haar classifier cascade, created by \cross{CreateHidHaarClassifierCascade}}
+\cvarg{sum}{Integral (sum) single-channel image of 32-bit integer format. This image as well as the two subsequent images are used for fast feature evaluation and brightness/contrast normalization. They all can be retrieved from input 8-bit or floating point single-channel image using the function \cross{Integral}}
+\cvarg{sqsum}{Square sum single-channel image of 64-bit floating-point format}
+\cvarg{tilted\_sum}{Tilted sum single-channel image of 32-bit integer format}
+\cvarg{scale}{Window scale for the cascade. If \texttt{scale} =1, the original window size is used (objects of that size are searched) - the same size as specified in \cross{LoadHaarClassifierCascade} (24x24 in the case of \texttt{default\_face\_cascade}), if \texttt{scale} =2, a two times larger window is used (48x48 in the case of default face cascade). While this will speed-up search about four times, faces smaller than 48x48 cannot be detected}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvSetImagesForHaarClassifierCascade} assigns images and/or window scale to the hidden classifier cascade. If image pointers are NULL, the previously set images are used further (i.e. NULLs mean "do not change images"). Scale parameter has no such a "protection" value, but the previous value can be retrieved by the \cross{GetHaarClassifierCascadeScale} function and reused again. The function is used to prepare cascade for detecting object of the particular size in the particular image. The function is called internally by \cross{HaarDetectObjects}, but it can be called by the user if they are using the lower-level function \cross{RunHaarClassifierCascade}.
+
+\cvfunc{RunHaarClassifierCascade}\label{RunHaarClassifierCascade}
+
+Runs a cascade of boosted classifiers at the given image location.
+
+\cvexp{
+int cvRunHaarClassifierCascade( \par CvHaarClassifierCascade* cascade,\par CvPoint pt,\par int start\_stage=0 );
+}{CPP}{PYTHON}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{cascade}{Haar classifier cascade}
+\cvarg{pt}{Top-left corner of the analyzed region. Size of the region is a original window size scaled by the currenly set scale. The current window size may be retrieved using the \cross{GetHaarClassifierCascadeWindowSize} function}
+\cvarg{start\_stage}{Initial zero-based index of the cascade stage to start from. The function assumes that all the previous stages are passed. This feature is used internally by \cross{HaarDetectObjects} for better processor cache utilization}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvRunHaarHaarClassifierCascade} runs the Haar classifier
+cascade at a single image location. Before using this function the
+integral images and the appropriate scale (window size) should be set
+using \cross{SetImagesForHaarClassifierCascade}. The function returns
+a positive value if the analyzed rectangle passed all the classifier stages
+(it is a candidate) and a zero or negative value otherwise.
+
+\fi
+
+\section{Camera Calibration and 3D Reconstruction}
+
+\subsection{Pinhole Camera Model, Distortion}
+
+The functions in this section use the so-called pinhole camera model. That
+is, a scene view is formed by projecting 3D points into the image plane
+using a perspective transformation.
+
+\[
+s \quad m' = A [R|t] M'
+\]
+
+or
+
+\[
+s \vecthree{u}{v}{1} = \vecthreethree
+{fx}{0}{cx}
+{0}{fy}{cy}
+{0}{0}{1}
+\begin{bmatrix}
+ r_{11} & r_{12} & r{13} & t_1 \\
+ r_{21} & r_{22} & r{23} & t_2 \\
+ r_{31} & r_{32} & r{33} & t_3
+\end{bmatrix}
+\begin{bmatrix}X\\Y\\Z\\1 \end{bmatrix}
+\]
+
+Where $(X, Y, Z)$ are the coordinates of a 3D point in the world
+coordinate space, $(u, v)$ are the coordinates of the projection point
+in pixels. $A$ is called a camera matrix, or a matrix of
+intrinsic parameters. $(cx, cy)$ is a principal point (that is
+usually at the image center), and $fx, fy$ are the focal lengths
+expressed in pixel-related units. Thus, if an image from camera is
+scaled by some factor, all of these parameters should
+be scaled (multiplied/divided, respectively) by the same factor. The
+matrix of intrinsic parameters does not depend on the scene viewed and,
+once estimated, can be re-used (as long as the focal length is fixed (in
+case of zoom lens)). The joint rotation-translation matrix $[R|t]$
+is called a matrix of extrinsic parameters. It is used to describe the
+camera motion around a static scene, or vice versa, rigid motion of an
+object in front of still camera. That is, $[R|t]$ translates
+coordinates of a point $(X, Y, Z)$ to some coordinate system,
+fixed with respect to the camera. The transformation above is equivalent
+to the following (when $z \ne 0$):
+
+\[
+\begin{array}{l}
+\vecthree{x}{y}{z} = R \vecthree{X}{Y}{Z} + t\\
+x' = x/z\\
+y' = y/z\\
+u = fx*x' + cx\\
+v = fy*y' + cy
+\end{array}
+\]
+
+Real lenses usually have some distortion, mostly
+radial distorion and slight tangential distortion. So, the above model
+is extended as:
+
+\[
+\begin{array}{l}
+\vecthree{x}{y}{z} = R \vecthree{X}{Y}{Z} + t\\
+x' = x/z\\
+y' = y/z\\
+x'' = x' (1 + k_1 r^2 + k_2 r^4 + k_3 r^6) + 2 p_1 x' y' + p_2(r^2 + 2 x'^2) \\
+y'' = y' (1 + k_1 r^2 + k_2 r^4 + k_3 r^6) + p_1 (r^2 + 2 y'^2) + 2 p_2 x' y' \\
+\text{where} \quad r^2 = x'^2 + y'^2 \\
+u = fx*x'' + cx\\
+v = fy*y'' + cy
+\end{array}
+\]
+
+$k_1$, $k_2$, $k_3$ are radial distortion coefficients, $p_1$, $p_2$ are tangential distortion coefficients.
+Higher-order coefficients are not considered in OpenCV.
+The distortion coefficients also do not depend on the scene viewed, thus they are intrinsic camera parameters.
+\emph{And they remain the same regardless of the captured image resolution.}
+That is, if, for example, a camera has been calibrated on images of $320
+\times 240$ resolution, absolutely the same distortion coefficients can
+be used for images of $640 \times 480$ resolution from the same camera (while $fx$,
+$fy$, $cx$ and $cy$ need to be scaled appropriately).
+
+The functions below use the above model to
+
+\begin{itemize}
+ \item Project 3D points to the image plane given intrinsic and extrinsic parameters
+ \item Compute extrinsic parameters given intrinsic parameters, a few 3D points and their projections.
+ \item Estimate intrinsic and extrinsic camera parameters from several views of a known calibration pattern (i.e. every view is described by several 3D-2D point correspodences).
+\end{itemize}
+
+\subsection{Camera Calibration}
+
+\cvfunc{ProjectPoints2}\label{ProjectPoints2}
+
+Projects 3D points on to an image plane.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvProjectPoints2( \par const CvMat* object\_points,\par const CvMat* rotation\_vector,\par const CvMat* translation\_vector,\par const CvMat* intrinsic\_matrix,\par const CvMat* distortion\_coeffs,\par CvMat* image\_points,\par CvMat* dpdrot=NULL,\par CvMat* dpdt=NULL,\par CvMat* dpdf=NULL,\par CvMat* dpdc=NULL,\par CvMat* dpddist=NULL );
+}{CPP}{ProjectPoints2(object\_points,rotation\_vector,translation\_vector,intrinsic\_matrix,distortion\_coeffs, image\_points,dpdrot=NULL,dpdt=NULL,dpdf=NULL,dpdc=NULL,dpddist=NULL)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{object\_points}{The array of object points, 3xN or Nx3, where N is the number of points in the view}
+\cvarg{rotation\_vector}{The rotation vector, 1x3 or 3x1}
+\cvarg{translation\_vector}{The translation vector, 1x3 or 3x1}
+\cvarg{intrinsic\_matrix}{The camera matrix $A = \vecthreethree{fx}{0}{cx}{0}{fy}{cy}{0}{0}{1} $}
+\cvarg{distortion\_coeffs}{The vector of distortion coefficients, 4x1 or 1x4 $k_1, k_2, k_3, k_4$. If it is \texttt{NULL}, all of the distortion coefficients are considered 0's}
+\cvarg{image\_points}{The output array of image points, 2xN or Nx2, where N is the total number of points in the view}
+\cvarg{dpdrot}{Optional Nx3 matrix of derivatives of image points with respect to components of the rotation vector}
+\cvarg{dpdt}{Optional Nx3 matrix of derivatives of image points with respect to components of the translation vector}
+\cvarg{dpdf}{Optional Nx2 matrix of derivatives of image points with respect to $fx$ and $fy$}
+\cvarg{dpdc}{Optional Nx2 matrix of derivatives of image points with respect to $cx$ and $cy$}
+\cvarg{dpddist}{Optional Nx4 matrix of derivatives of image points with respect to distortion coefficients}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvProjectPoints2} computes projections of 3D
+points to the image plane given intrinsic and extrinsic camera
+parameters. Optionally, the function computes jacobians - matrices
+of partial derivatives of image points as functions of all the
+input parameters with respect to the particular parameters, intrinsic and/or
+extrinsic. The jacobians are used during the global optimization
+in \cross{CalibrateCamera2} and
+\cross{FindExtrinsicCameraParams2}. The
+function itself is also used to compute back-projection error for with
+current intrinsic and extrinsic parameters.
+
+Note, that with intrinsic and/or extrinsic parameters set to special
+values, the function can be used to compute just an extrinsic transformation
+or just an intrinsic transformation (i.e. distortion of a sparse set
+of points).
+
+\cvfunc{FindHomography}\label{FindHomography}
+
+Finds the perspective transformation between two planes.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvFindHomography( \par const CvMat* src\_points,\par const CvMat* dst\_points,\par CvMat* homography \par
+int method=0, \par double ransacReprojThreshold=0, \par CvMat* mask=NULL);
+}{CPP}{FindHomography(src\_points,dst\_points)-> homography}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{src\_points}{Point coordinates in the original plane, 2xN, Nx2, 3xN or Nx3 array (the latter two are for representation in homogenious coordinates), where N is the number of points}
+\cvarg{dst\_points}{Point coordinates in the destination plane, 2xN, Nx2, 3xN or Nx3 array (the latter two are for representation in homogenious coordinates)}
+\cvarg{homography}{Output 3x3 homography matrix}
+\cvarg{method}{ The method used to computed homography matrix; one of the following:
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{0}{regular method using all the point pairs}
+\cvarg{CV\_RANSAC}{RANSAC-based robust method}
+\cvarg{CV\_LMEDS}{Least-Median robust method}
+\end{description}}
+\cvarg{ransacReprojThreshold}{The maximum allowed reprojection error to treat a point pair as an inlier. The parameter is only used in RANSAC-based homography estimation. E.g. if \texttt{dst\_points} coordinates are measured in pixels with pixel-accurate precision, it makes sense to set this parameter somewhere in the range 1 to 3. }
+\cvarg{mask}{The optional output mask set by a robust method (\texttt{CV\_RANSAC} or \texttt{CV\_LMEDS}).}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvFindHomography} finds the perspective transformation $H$ between the source and the destination planes:
+
+\[
+s_i \vecthree{x'_i}{y'_i}{1} \sim H \vecthree{x_i}{y_i}{1}
+\]
+
+So that the back-projection error is minimized:
+
+\[
+\sum_i
+\left( x'_i-\frac{h_{11} x_i + h_{12} y_i + h_{13}}{h_{31} x_i + h_{32} y_i + h_{33}} \right)^2+
+\left( y'_i-\frac{h_{21} x_i + h_{22} y_i + h_{23}}{h_{31} x_i + h_{32} y_i + h_{33}} \right)^2
+\]
+
+If the parameter method is set to the default value 0, the function
+uses all the point pairs and estimates the best suitable homography
+matrix. However, if not all of the point pairs ($src\_points_i$,
+$dst\_points_i$) fit the rigid perspective transformation (i.e. there
+can be outliers), it is still possible to estimate the correct
+transformation using one of the robust methods available. Both
+methods, \texttt{CV\_RANSAC} and \texttt{CV\_LMEDS}, try many different random subsets
+of the corresponding point pairs (of 5 pairs each), estimate
+the homography matrix using this subset and a simple least-square
+algorithm and then compute the quality/goodness of the computed homography
+(which is the number of inliers for RANSAC or the median reprojection
+error for LMeDs). The best subset is then used to produce the initial
+estimate of the homography matrix and the mask of inliers/outliers.
+
+Regardless of the method, robust or not, the computed homography
+matrix is refined further (using inliers only in the case of a robust
+method) with the Levenberg-Marquardt method in order to reduce the
+reprojection error even more.
+
+The method \texttt{CV\_RANSAC} can handle practically any ratio of outliers,
+but it needs the threshold to distinguish inliers from outliers.
+The method \texttt{CV\_LMEDS} does not need any threshold, but it works
+correctly only when there are more than 50\% of inliers. Finally,
+if you are sure in the computed features and there can be only some
+small noise, but no outliers, the default method could be the best
+choice.
+
+The function is used to find initial intrinsic and extrinsic matrices.
+Homography matrix is determined up to a scale, thus it is normalized
+to make $h_{33} =1$.
+
+\cvfunc{CalibrateCamera2}\label{CalibrateCamera2}
+
+Finds the intrinsic and extrinsic camera parameters using a calibration pattern.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvCalibrateCamera2( \par const CvMat* object\_points,\par const CvMat* image\_points,\par const CvMat* point\_counts,\par CvSize image\_size,\par CvMat* intrinsic\_matrix,\par CvMat* distortion\_coeffs,\par CvMat* rotation\_vectors=NULL,\par CvMat* translation\_vectors=NULL,\par int flags=0 );
+}{CPP}{CalibrateCamera2(object\_points,image\_points,point\_counts,image\_size,intrinsic\_matrix,distortion\_coeffs,rotation\_vectors,translation\_vectors,flags=0)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{object\_points}{The joint matrix of object points, 3xN or Nx3, where N is the total number of points in all views}
+\cvarg{image\_points}{The joint matrix of corresponding image points, 2xN or Nx2, where N is the total number of points in all views}
+\cvarg{point\_counts}{Vector containing the number of points in each particular view, 1xM or Mx1, where M is the number of points in a scene}
+\cvarg{image\_size}{Size of the image, used only to initialize the intrinsic camera matrix}
+\cvarg{intrinsic\_matrix}{The output camera matrix $A = \vecthreethree{fx}{0}{cx}{0}{fy}{cy}{0}{0}{1} $. If \texttt{CV\_CALIB\_USE\_INTRINSIC\_GUESS} and/or \texttt{CV\_CALIB\_FIX\_ASPECT\_RATION} are specified, some or all of \texttt{fx, fy, cx, cy} must be initialized}
+\cvarg{distortion\_coeffs}{The output 4x1 or 1x4 vector of distortion coefficients $k_1, k_2, k_3, k_4$}
+\cvarg{rotation\_vectors}{The output 3xM or Mx3 array of rotation vectors (compact representation of rotation matrices, \cross{Rodrigues2})}
+\cvarg{translation\_vectors}{The output 3xM or Mx3 array of translation vectors}
+\cvarg{flags}{Different flags, may be 0 or combination of the following values:
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{CV\_CALIB\_USE\_INTRINSIC\_GUESS}{\texttt{intrinsic\_matrix} contains the valid initial values of \texttt{fx, fy, cx, cy} that are optimized further. Otherwise, \texttt{(cx, cy)} is initially set to the image center (\texttt{image\_size} is used here), and focal distances are computed in some least-squares fashion. Note, that if intrinsic parameters are known, there is no need to use this function. Use \cross{FindExtrinsicCameraParams2} instead.}
+\cvarg{CV\_CALIB\_FIX\_PRINCIPAL\_POINT}{The principal point is not changed during the global optimization, it stays at the center and at the other location specified (when \texttt{CV\_CALIB\_USE\_INTRINSIC\_GUESS} is set as well)}
+\cvarg{CV\_CALIB\_FIX\_ASPECT\_RATIO}{The optimization procedure considers only one of \texttt{fx} and \texttt{fy} as independent variables and keeps the aspect ratio \texttt{fx/fy} the same as it was set initially in \texttt{intrinsic\_matrix}. In this case the actual initial values of \texttt{(fx, fy)} are either taken from the matrix (when \texttt{CV\_CALIB\_USE\_INTRINSIC\_GUESS} is set) or estimated somehow (in the latter case \texttt{fx, fy} may be set to arbitrary values, only their ratio is used).}
+\cvarg{CV\_CALIB\_ZERO\_TANGENT\_DIST}{Tangential distortion coefficients are set to zeros and do not change during the optimization.}}
+\end{description}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvCalibrateCamera2} estimates the intrinsic camera
+parameters and extrinsic parameters for each of the views. The
+coordinates of 3D object points and their correspondent 2D projections
+in each view must be specified. That may be achieved by using an
+object with known geometry and easily detectable feature points.
+Such an object is called a calibration rig or calibration pattern,
+and OpenCV has built-in support for a chessboard as a calibration
+rig (see \cross{FindChessboardCornerGuesses}). Currently, initialization
+of intrinsic parameters (when \texttt{CV\_CALIB\_USE\_INTRINSIC\_GUESS}
+is not set) is only implemented for planar calibration rigs
+(z-coordinates of object points must be all 0's or all 1's). 3D
+rigs can still be used as long as initial \texttt{intrinsic\_matrix}
+is provided. After the initial values of intrinsic and extrinsic
+parameters are computed, they are optimized to minimize the total
+back-projection error - the sum of squared differences between the
+actual coordinates of image points and the ones computed using
+\cross{ProjectPoints2}.
+
+Note: if you're using a non-square (=non-NxN) grid and
+\cross{FindChessboardCorners} for calibration, and cvCalibrateCamera2 returns
+bad values (i.e. zero distortion coefficients, an image center of
+(w/2-0.5,h/2-0.5), and / or large differences between $fx$ and $fy$ (ratios of
+10:1 or more)), then you've probaby used pattern\_size=cvSize(rows,cols),
+but should use pattern\_size=cvSize(cols,rows) in \cross{FindChessboardCorners}.
+
+\cvfunc{FindExtrinsicCameraParams2}\label{FindExtrinsicCameraParams2}
+
+Finds the extrinsic camera parameters for a particular view.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvFindExtrinsicCameraParams2( \par const CvMat* object\_points,\par const CvMat* image\_points,\par const CvMat* intrinsic\_matrix,\par const CvMat* distortion\_coeffs,\par CvMat* rotation\_vector,\par CvMat* translation\_vector );
+}{CPP}{FindExtrinsicCameraParams2(object\_points,image\_points,intrinsic\_matrix,distortion\_coeffs,rotation\_vector,translation\_vector)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{object\_points}{The array of object points, 3xN or Nx3, where N is the number of points in the view}
+\cvarg{image\_points}{The array of corresponding image points, 2xN or Nx2, where N is the number of points in the view}
+\cvarg{intrinsic\_matrix}{The input camera matrix $A = \vecthreethree{fx}{0}{cx}{0}{fy}{cy}{0}{0}{1} $}
+\cvarg{distortion\_coeffs}{The input 4x1 or 1x4 vector of distortion coefficients $k_1, k_2, k_3, k_4$. If it is NULL, all of the distortion coefficients are set to 0}
+\cvarg{rotation\_vector}{The output 3x1 or 1x3 rotation vector (compact representation of a rotation matrix, \cross{Rodrigues2}}
+\cvarg{translation\_vector}{The output 3x1 or 1x3 translation vector}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvFindExtrinsicCameraParams2} estimates the extrinsic camera parameters using known intrinsic parameters and extrinsic parameters for each view. The coordinates of 3D object points and their correspondent 2D projections must be specified. This function also minimizes back-projection error.
+
+\cvfunc{StereoCalibrate}
+
+Calibrates stereo camera.
+
+\cvexp{
+
+void cvStereoCalibrate( \par const CvMat* object\_points, \par const CvMat* image\_points1,
+ \par const CvMat* image\_points2, \par const CvMat* point\_counts,
+ \par CvMat* camera\_matrix1, \par CvMat* dist\_coeffs1,
+ \par CvMat* camera\_matrix2, \par CvMat* dist\_coeffs2,
+ \par CvSize image\_size, \par CvMat* R, \par CvMat* T,
+ \par CvMat* E=0, \par CvMat* F=0,
+ \par CvTermCriteria term\_crit=cvTermCriteria(
+ \par CV\_TERMCRIT\_ITER+CV\_TERMCRIT\_EPS,30,1e-6),
+ \par int flags=CV\_CALIB\_FIX\_INTRINSIC );
+
+}{CPP}{StereoCalibrate(\par object\_points,\par image\_points1,\par image\_points2,\par point\_counts,\par camera\_matrix1,\par dist\_coeffs1,\par camera\_matrix2,\par dist\_coeffs2,\par image\_size,\par R,\par T,\par E=NULL,\par F=NULL,\par term\_crit=cvTermCriteria(CV\_TERMCRIT\_ITER+CV\_TERMCRIT\_EPS,30,1e-6),\par flags=CV\_CALIB\_FIX\_INTRINSIC)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{object\_points}{The joint matrix of object points, 3xN or Nx3, where N is the total number of points in all views.}
+\cvarg{image\_points1}{The joint matrix of corresponding image points in the views from the 1st camera, 2xN or Nx2, where N is the total number of points in all views.}
+\cvarg{image\_points2}{The joint matrix of corresponding image points in the views from the 2nd camera, 2xN or Nx2, where N is the total number of points in all views.}
+\cvarg{point\_counts}{Vector containing numbers of points in each view, 1xM or Mx1, where M is the number of views.}
+\cvarg{camera\_matrix1, camera\_matrix2}{The input/output camera matrices [${fx}_k 0 {cx}_k; 0 {fy}_k {cy}_k; 0 0 1$]. If \texttt{CV\_CALIB\_USE\_INTRINSIC\_GUESS} or \texttt{CV\_CALIB\_FIX\_ASPECT\_RATIO} are specified, some or all of the elements of the matrices must be initialized.}
+\cvarg{dist\_coeffs1, dist\_coeffs2}{The input/output vectors of distortion coefficients for each camera, \href{\#Pinhole Camera Model, Distortion}{4x1, 1x4, 5x1 or 1x5.}}
+\cvarg{image\_size}{Size of the image, used only to initialize intrinsic camera matrix.}
+\cvarg{R}{The rotation matrix between the 1st and the 2nd cameras' coordinate systems.}
+\cvarg{T}{The translation vector between the cameras' coordinate systems.}
+\cvarg{E}{The optional output essential matrix.}
+\cvarg{F}{The optional output fundamental matrix.}
+\cvarg{term\_crit}{Termination criteria for the iterative optimiziation algorithm.}
+\cvarg{flags}{Different flags, may be 0 or combination of the following values:
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{CV\_CALIB\_FIX\_INTRINSIC}{If it is set, \texttt{camera\_matrix1,2}, as well as \texttt{dist\_coeffs1,2} are fixed, so that only extrinsic parameters are optimized.}
+\cvarg{CV\_CALIB\_USE\_INTRINSIC\_GUESS}{The flag allows the function to optimize some or all of the intrinsic parameters, depending on the other flags, but the initial values are provided by the user.}
+\cvarg{CV\_CALIB\_FIX\_PRINCIPAL\_POINT}{The principal points are fixed during the optimization.}
+\cvarg{CV\_CALIB\_FIX\_FOCAL\_LENGTH}{${fx}_k$ and ${fy}_k$ are fixed.}
+\cvarg{CV\_CALIB\_FIX\_ASPECT\_RATIO}{${fy}_k$ is optimized, but the ratio ${fx}_k/{fy}_k$ is fixed.}
+\cvarg{CV\_CALIB\_SAME\_FOCAL\_LENGTH}{Enforces ${fx}_0={fx}_1$ and ${fy}_0={fy}_1$. \texttt{CV\_CALIB\_ZERO\_TANGENT\_DIST} - Tangential distortion coefficients for each camera are set to zeros and fixed there.}
+\cvarg{CV\_CALIB\_FIX\_K1}{The 0-th distortion coefficients (k1) are fixed.}
+\cvarg{CV\_CALIB\_FIX\_K2}{The 1-st distortion coefficients (k2) are fixed.}
+\cvarg{CV\_CALIB\_FIX\_K3}{The 4-th distortion coefficients (k3) are fixed.}
+\end{description}}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvStereoCalibrate} estimates transformation between the 2 cameras making a stereo pair. If we have a stereo camera, where the relative position and orientatation of the 2 cameras is fixed, and if we computed poses of an object relative to the fist camera and to the second camera, (R1, T1) and (R2, T2), respectively (that can be done with \cross{cvFindExtrinsicCameraParams2}), obviously, those poses will relate to each other, i.e. given ($R_1$, $T_1$) it should be possible to compute ($R_2$, $T_2$) - we only need to know the position and orientation of the 2nd camera relative to the 1st camera. That's what the described function does. It computes ($R$, $T$) such that:
+
+\[
+R_2=R*R_1
+T_2=R*T_1 + T,
+\]
+
+Optionally, it computes the essential matrix E:
+
+\[
+E=
+\vecthreethree
+{0}{-T_2}{T_1}
+{T_2}{0}{-T_0}
+{-T_1}{T_0}{0}
+*R
+\]
+
+where $T_i$ are components of the translation vector $T$: $T=[T_0, T_1, T_2]^T$. And also the function can compute the fundamental matrix F:
+
+$F = inv(camera\_matrix2)^T*E*inv(camera\_matrix1)$
+
+Besides the stereo-related information, the function can also perform full calibration of each of the 2 cameras. However, because of the high dimensionality of the parameter space and noise in the input data the function can diverge from the correct solution. Thus, if intrinsic parameters can be estimated with high accuracy for each of the cameras individually (e.g. using \cross{cvCalibrateCamera2}), it is recommended to do so and then pass \texttt{CV\_CALIB\_FIX\_INTRINSIC} flag to the function along with the computed intrinsic parameters. Otherwise, if all the parameters are estimated at once, it makes sense to restrict some parameters, e.g. pass \texttt{CV\_CALIB\_SAME\_FOCAL\_LENGTH} and \texttt{CV\_CALIB\_ZERO\_TANGENT\_DIST} flags, which are usually reasonable assumptions.
+
+\cvfunc{StereoRectify}
+
+Computes rectification transform for stereo camera.
+
+\cvexp{
+
+void cvStereoRectify( \par const CvMat* camera\_matrix1, \par const CvMat* camera\_matrix2,
+ \par const CvMat* dist\_coeffs1, \par const CvMat* dist\_coeffs2,
+ \par CvSize image\_size, \par const CvMat* R, \par const CvMat* T,
+ \par CvMat* R1, \par CvMat* R2, \par CvMat* P1, \par CvMat* P2,
+ \par CvMat* Q=0, \par int flags=CV\_CALIB\_ZERO\_DISPARITY );
+
+}{CPP}{StereoRectify(\par camera\_matrix1,\par camera\_matrix2,\par dist\_coeffs1,\par dist\_coeffs2,\par image\_size,\par R,\par T,\par R1,\par R2,\par P1,\par P2,\par Q=NULL,\par flags=CV\_CALIB\_ZERO\_DISPARITY)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{camera\_matrix1, camera\_matrix2}{The camera matrices [${fx}_k$ 0 ${cx}_k$; 0 ${fy}_k$ ${cy}_k$; 0 0 1].}
+\cvarg{dist\_coeffs1, dist\_coeffs2}{The vectors of distortion coefficients for each camera, \href{\#Pinhole Camera Model, Distortion}{4x1, 1x4, 5x1 or 1x5.}}
+\cvarg{image\_size}{Size of the image used for stereo calibration.}
+\cvarg{R}{The rotation matrix between the 1st and the 2nd cameras' coordinate systems.}
+\cvarg{T}{The translation vector between the cameras' coordinate systems.}
+\cvarg{R1, R2}{3x3 Rectification transforms (rotation matrices) for the first and the second cameras, respectively.}
+\cvarg{P1, P2}{3x4 Projection matrices in the new (rectified) coordinate systems.}
+\cvarg{Q}{The optional output disparity-to-depth mapping matrix, 4x4, see \cross{cvReprojectImageTo3D}.}
+\cvarg{flags}{The operation flags; may be 0 or \texttt{CV\_CALIB\_ZERO\_DISPARITY}. If the flag is set, the function makes the principal points of each camera have the same pixel coordinates in the rectified views. And if the flag is not set, the function can shift one of the image in horizontal or vertical direction (depending on the orientation of epipolar lines) in order to maximise the useful image area. }
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvStereoRectify} computes the rotation matrices for each camera that (virtually) make both camera image planes the same plane. Consequently, that makes all the epipolar lines parallel and thus simplifies the dense stereo correspondence problem. On input the function takes the matrices computed by \cross{cvStereoCalibrate} and on output it gives 2 rotation matrices and also 2 projection matrices in the new coordinates. The function is normally called after \cross{cvStereoCalibrate} that computes both camera matrices, the distortion coefficients, R and T. The 2 cases are distinguished by the function:
+
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item{Horizontal stereo, when 1st and 2nd camera views are shifted relative to each other mainly along the x axis (with possible small vertical shift). Then in the rectified images the corresponding epipolar lines in left and right cameras will be horizontal and have the same y-coordinate. P1 and P2 will look as:
+
+\[
+P1=
+\begin{array}{cccc}
+f & 0 & cx1 & 0\\
+0 & f & cy & 0\\
+0 & 0 & 1 & 0
+\end{array}
+\]
+\[
+P2=
+\begin{array}{cccc}
+f & 0 & cx2 & Tx*f\\
+0 & f & cy & 0\\
+0 & 0 & 1 & 0
+\end{array}
+,
+\]
+
+where $T_x$ is horizontal shift between the cameras and cx1=cx2 if \texttt{CV\_CALIB\_ZERO\_DISPARITY} is set.}
+\item{Vertical stereo, when 1st and 2nd camera views are shifted relative to each other mainly in vertical direction (and probably a bit in the horizontal direction too). Then the epipolar lines in the rectified images will be vertical and have the same x coordinate. P2 and P2 will look as:
+
+\[
+P1=
+\begin{array}{cccc}
+f & 0 & cx & 0\\
+0 & f & cy1 & 0\\
+0 & 0 & 1 & 0
+\end{array}
+\]
+\[
+P2=
+\begin{array}{cccc}
+f & 0 & cx & 0\\
+0 & f & cy2 & Ty*f\\
+0 & 0 & 1 & 0
+\end{array}
+,
+\]
+
+where $T_y$ is vertical shift between the cameras and cy1=cy2 if \texttt{CV\_CALIB\_ZERO\_DISPARITY} is set.}
+\end{enumerate}
+
+As you can see, the first 3 columns of P1 and P2 will effectively be the new "rectified" camera matrices.
+
+\cvfunc{StereoRectifyUncalibrated}
+
+Computes rectification transform for uncalibrated stereo camera.
+
+\cvexp{
+
+void cvStereoRectifyUncalibrated( \par const CvMat* points1, \par const CvMat* points2,
+ \par const CvMat* F, \par CvSize image\_size,
+ \par CvMat* H1, \par CvMat* H2,
+ \par double threshold=5 );
+
+}{CPP}{StereoRectifyUncalibrated(points1,points2,F,image\_size,H1,H2,threshold=5)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{points1, points2}{The 2 arrays of corresponding 2D points.}
+\cvarg{F}{Fundamental matrix. It can be computed using the same set of point pairs points1 and points2 using \cross{cvFindFundamentalMat}.}
+\cvarg{image\_size}{Size of the image.}
+\cvarg{H1, H2}{The rectification homography matrices for the first and for the second images.}
+\cvarg{threshold}{Optional threshold used to filter out the outliers. If the parameter is greater than zero, then all the point pairs that do not comply the epipolar geometry well enough (that is, the points for which $fabs(points2[i]^T*F*points1[i])>threshold$) are rejected prior to computing the homographies. }
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvStereoRectifyUncalibrated} computes the rectification transformations without knowing intrinsic parameters of the cameras and their relative position in space, hence the suffix "Uncalibrated". Another related difference from \cross{cvStereoRectify} is that the function outputs not the rectification transformations in the object (3D) space, but the planar perspective transformations, encoded by the homography matrices H1 and H2. The function implements the following algorithm \href{\#Hartly99}{[Hartley99]}.
+
+Note that while the algorithm does not need to know the intrinsic parameters of the cameras, it heavily depends on the epipolar geometry. Therefore, if the camera lenses have significant distortion, it would better be corrected before computing the fundamental matrix and calling this function. For example, distortion coefficients can be estimated for each head of stereo camera separately by using \cross{cvCalibrateCamera2} and then the images can be corrected using \cross{cvUndistort2}.
+
+\cvfunc{Rodrigues2}\label{Rodrigues2}
+
+Converts a rotation matrix to a rotation vector or vice versa.
+
+\cvexp{
+int cvRodrigues2( \par const CvMat* src,\par CvMat* dst,\par CvMat* jacobian=0 );
+}{CPP}{Rodrigues2(src,dst,jacobian=0)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{src}{The input rotation vector (3x1 or 1x3) or rotation matrix (3x3)}
+\cvarg{dst}{The output rotation matrix (3x3) or rotation vector (3x1 or 1x3), respectively}
+\cvarg{jacobian}{Optional output Jacobian matrix, 3x9 or 9x3 - partial derivatives of the output array components with respect to the input array components}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvRodrigues2} converts a rotation vector to a rotation matrix or vice versa. A rotation vector is a compact representation of rotation matrix. Direction of the rotation vector is the rotation axis and the length of the vector is the rotation angle around the axis. The rotation matrix $R$, corresponding to the rotation vector $r$, is computed as following:
+
+\[
+\begin{array}{l}
+\theta \leftarrow norm(r)\\
+r \leftarrow r/\theta\\
+R = \cos{\theta} I + (1-\cos{\theta}) r r^T + \sin{\theta}
+\vecthreethree
+{0}{-r_z}{r_y}
+{r_z}{0}{-r_x}
+{-r_y}{r_x}{0}
+\end{array}
+\]
+
+Inverse transformation can also be done easily as
+
+\[
+\sin(\theta)
+\vecthreethree
+{0}{-r_z}{r_y}
+{r_z}{0}{-r_x}
+{-r_y}{r_x}{0}
+=
+\frac{R - R^T}{2}
+\]
+
+A rotation vector is a convenient representation of a rotation matrix
+as a matrix with only 3 degrees of freedom. The representation is
+used in the global optimization procedures inside
+\cross{FindExtrinsicCameraParams2}
+and \cross{CalibrateCamera2}.
+
+\cvfunc{Undistort2}\label{Undistort2}
+
+Transforms an image to compensate for lens distortion.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvUndistort2( \par const CvArr* src,\par CvArr* dst,\par const CvMat* intrinsic\_matrix,\par const CvMat* distortion\_coeffs );
+}{CPP}{Undistort2(src,dst,intrinsic\_matrix,distortion\_coeffs)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{src}{The input (distorted) image}
+\cvarg{dst}{The output (corrected) image}
+\cvarg{intrinsic\_matrix}{The camera matrix $A = \vecthreethree{fx}{0}{cx}{0}{fy}{cy}{0}{0}{1} $}
+\cvarg{distortion\_coeffs}{The 4x1 or 1x4 vector of distortion coefficients $k_1, k_2, k_3, k_4$.}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvUndistort2} transforms the image to compensate
+radial and tangential lens distortion. The camera matrix and
+distortion parameters can be determined using
+\cross{CalibrateCamera2}. For every
+pixel in the output image the function computes the coordinates of the
+corresponding location in the input image using the formulas in the
+section beginning. Then, the pixel value is computed using bilinear
+interpolation. If the resolution of images is different from what
+was used at the calibration stage, $fx, fy, cx$ and $cy$
+need to be adjusted appropriately, while the distortion coefficients
+remain the same.
+
+\cvfunc{InitUndistortMap}\label{InitUndistortMap}
+
+Computes an undistortion map.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvInitUndistortMap( \par const CvMat* intrinsic\_matrix,\par const CvMat* distortion\_coeffs,\par CvArr* mapx,\par CvArr* mapy );
+}{CPP}{InitUndistortMap(camera\_matrix,distortion\_coeffs,mapx,mapy)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{intrinsic\_matrix}{The output camera matrix $A = \vecthreethree{fx}{0}{cx}{0}{fy}{cy}{0}{0}{1} $}
+\cvarg{distortion\_coeffs}{The output 4x1 or 1x4 vector of distortion coefficients $k_1, k_2, k_3, k_4$.}
+\cvarg{mapx}{The output array of x-coordinates of the map}
+\cvarg{mapy}{The output array of y-coordinates of the map}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvInitUndistortMap} pre-computes the undistortion map - coordinates of the corresponding pixel in the distorted image for every pixel in the corrected image. Then, the map (together with input and output images) can be passed to the \cross{Remap} function.
+
+\cvfunc{InitUndistortRectifyMap}
+
+Computes the undistortion and rectification transformation map of a head of a stereo camera.
+
+\cvexp{
+
+void cvInitUndistortRectifyMap( \par const CvMat* camera\_matrix,
+ \par const CvMat* dist\_coeffs,
+ \par const CvMat* R,
+ \par const CvMat* new\_camera\_matrix,
+ \par CvArr* mapx, /par CvArr* mapy );
+
+}{CPP}{InitUndistortRectifyMap(camera\_matrix,dist\_coeffs,R,new\_camera\_matrix,mapx,mapy)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{camera\_matrix}{The camera matrix $A=[fx 0 cx; 0 fy cy; 0 0 1]$}
+\cvarg{dist\_coeffs}{The vector of distortion coefficients, \cross{4x1, 1x4, 5x1 or 1x5}}
+\cvarg{R}{The rectification transformation in object space (3x3 matrix). R1 or R2, computed by \cross{StereoRectify} can be passed here. If the parameter is NULL, the identity matrix is used}
+\cvarg{new\_camera\_matrix}{The new camera matrix $A'=[fx' 0 cx'; 0 fy' cy'; 0 0 1]$}
+\cvarg{mapx}{The output array of x-coordinates of the map}
+\cvarg{mapy}{The output array of y-coordinates of the map}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{InitUndistortRectifyMap} is an extended version of \cross{InitUndistortMap}. That is, in addition to the correction of lens distortion, the function can also apply arbitrary perspective transformation R and finally it can scale and shift the image according to the new camera matrix. That is, in pseudo code the transformation can be represented as:
+
+\begin{lstlisting}
+// (u,v) is the input point,
+// camera_matrix=[fx 0 cx; 0 fy cy; 0 0 1]
+// new_camera_matrix=[fx' 0 cx'; 0 fy' cy'; 0 0 1]
+x = (u - cx')/fx'
+y = (v - cy')/fy'
+[X,Y,W]T = R-1*[x y 1]T
+x' = X/W, y' = Y/W
+x" = x'*(1 + k1r2 + k2r4 + k3r6) + 2*p1x'*y' + p2(r2+2*x'2)
+y" = y'*(1 + k1r2 + k2r4 + k3r6) + p1(r2+2*y'2) + 2*p2*x'*y'
+mapx(u,v) = x"*fx + cx
+mapy(u,v) = y"*fy + cy
+\end{lstlisting}
+
+Note that the code above does the reverse transformation from the target image (i.e. the ideal one, after undistortion and rectification) to the original "raw" image straight from the camera. That's for bilinear interpolation purposes and in order to fill the whole destination image w/o gaps using \cross{Remap}.\
+
+Normally, this function is called [twice, once for each head of stereo camera] after \cross{StereoRectify}. But it is also possible to compute the rectification transformations directly from the fundamental matrix, e.g. by using \cross{StereoRectifyUncalibrated}. Such functions work with pixels and produce homographies as rectification transformations, not rotation matrices R in 3D space. In this case, the R can be computed from the homography matrix \texttt{H} as
+
+\begin{lstlisting}
+R = inv(camera_matrix)*H*camera_matrix
+\end{lstlisting}
+
+\cvfunc{UndistortPoints}
+
+Computes the ideal point coordinates from the observed point coordinates.
+
+\cvexp{
+
+void cvUndistortPoints( \par const CvMat* src, \par CvMat* dst,
+ \par const CvMat* camera\_matrix,
+ \par const CvMat* dist\_coeffs,
+ \par const CvMat* R=NULL,
+ \par const CvMat* P=NULL);
+
+}{CPP}{UndistortPoints(src,dst,camera\_matrix,dist\_coeffs,R=NULL,P=NULL)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{src}{The observed point coordinates}
+\cvarg{dst}{The ideal point coordinates, after undistortion and reverse perspective transformation}
+\cvarg{camera\_matrix}{The camera matrix $A=[fx 0 cx; 0 fy cy; 0 0 1]$}
+\cvarg{dist\_coeffs}{he vector of distortion coefficients, \cross{4x1, 1x4, 5x1 or 1x5}}
+\cvarg{R}{The rectification transformation in object space (3x3 matrix). \texttt{R1} or \texttt{R2}, computed by \cross{StereoRectify} can be passed here. If the parameter is NULL, the identity matrix is used}
+\cvarg{P}{The new camera matrix (3x3) or the new projection matrix (3x4). \texttt{P1} or \texttt{P2}, computed by \cross{StereoRectify} can be passed here. If the parameter is NULL, the identity matrix is used}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{UndistortPoints} is similar to \cross{InitUndistortRectifyMap} and is opposite to it at the same time. The functions are similar in that they both are used to correct lens distortion and to perform the optional perspective (rectification) transformation. They are opposite because the function \cross{InitUndistortRectifyMap} does actually perform the reverse transformation in order to initialize the maps properly, while this function does the forward transformation. That is, in pseudo-code it can be expressed as:
+
+\begin{lstlisting}
+// (u,v) is the input point, (u', v') is the output point
+// camera_matrix=[fx 0 cx; 0 fy cy; 0 0 1]
+// P=[fx' 0 cx' tx; 0 fy' cy' ty; 0 0 1 tz]
+x" = (u - cx)/fx
+y" = (v - cy)/fy
+(x',y') = undistort(x",y",dist_coeffs)
+[X,Y,W]T = R*[x' y' 1]T
+x = X/W, y = Y/W
+u' = x*fx' + cx'
+v' = y*fy' + cy',
+\end{lstlisting}
+
+where undistort() is approximate iterative algorithm that estimates the normalized original point coordinates out of the normalized distorted point coordinates ("normalized" means that the coordinates do not depend on the camera matrix).
+
+The function can be used as for stereo cameras, as well as for individual cameras when R=NULL.
+
+\cvfunc{FindChessboardCorners}\label{FindChessboardCorners}
+
+Finds the positions of the internal corners of the chessboard.
+
+\cvexp{
+int cvFindChessboardCorners( \par const void* image,\par CvSize pattern\_size,\par CvPoint2D32f* corners,\par int* corner\_count=NULL,\par int flags=CV\_CALIB\_CB\_ADAPTIVE\_THRESH );
+}{CPP}{FindChessboardCorners(image, pattern\_size, flags=CV\_CALIB\_CB\_ADAPTIVE\_THRESH) -> corners}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{image}{Source chessboard view; it must be an 8-bit grayscale or color image}
+\cvarg{pattern\_size}{The number of inner corners per chessboard row and column}
+( pattern\_size = cvSize(points\_per\_row,points\_per\_colum) = cvSize(columns,rows) )
+\cvarg{corners}{The output array of corners detected}
+\cvC{\cvarg{corner\_count}{The output corner counter. If it is not NULL, it stores the number of corners found}}
+\cvarg{flags}{Various operation flags, can be 0 or a combination of the following values:
+\begin{description}
+ \cvarg{CV\_CALIB\_CB\_ADAPTIVE\_THRESH}{use adaptive thresholding to convert the image to black and white, rather than a fixed threshold level (computed from the average image brightness).}
+ \cvarg{CV\_CALIB\_CB\_NORMALIZE\_IMAGE}{normalize the image using \cross{NormalizeHist} before applying fixed or adaptive thresholding.}
+ \cvarg{CV\_CALIB\_CB\_FILTER\_QUADS}{use additional criteria (like contour area, perimeter, square-like shape) to filter out false quads that are extracted at the contour retrieval stage.}
+\end{description}}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvFindChessboardCorners} attempts to determine
+whether the input image is a view of the chessboard pattern and
+locate the internal chessboard corners. The function returns a non-zero
+value if all of the corners have been found and they have been placed
+in a certain order (row by row, left to right in every row),
+otherwise, if the function fails to find all the corners or reorder
+them, it returns 0. For example, a regular chessboard has 8 x 8
+squares and 7 x 7 internal corners, that is, points, where the black
+squares touch each other. The coordinates detected are approximate,
+and to determine their position more accurately, the user may use
+the function \cross{FindCornerSubPix}.
+
+\cvfunc{DrawChessBoardCorners}\label{DrawChessBoardCorners}
+
+Renders the detected chessboard corners.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvDrawChessboardCorners( \par CvArr* image,\par CvSize pattern\_size,\par CvPoint2D32f* corners,\par int count,\par int pattern\_was\_found );
+}{CPP}{DrawChessboardCorners(image,pattern\_size,corners,pattern\_was\_found)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{image}{The destination image; it must be an 8-bit color image}
+\cvarg{pattern\_size}{The number of inner corners per chessboard row and column. ( pattern\_size = cvSize(points\_per\_row,points\_per\_colum) = cvSize(columns,rows) )}
+\cvarg{corners}{The array of corners detected}
+\cvarg{count}{The number of corners}
+\cvarg{pattern\_was\_found}{Indicates whether the complete board was found $(\ne 0)$ or not $(=0)$. One may just pass the return value \cross{FindChessboardCorners} here}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvDrawChessboardCorners} draws the individual chessboard corners detected as red circles if the board was not found $(\texttt{pattern\_was\_found} =0)$ or as colored corners connected with lines if the board was found $(\texttt{pattern\_was\_found} \ne 0)$.
+
+
+\cvfunc{RQDecomp3x3}\label{RQDecomp3x3}
+
+Computes the `RQ' decomposition of 3x3 matrices.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvRQDecomp3x3( \par const CvMat *matrixM,\par CvMat *matrixR,\par CvMat *matrixQ,\par CvMat *matrixQx=NULL,\par CvMat *matrixQy=NULL,\par CvMat *matrixQz=NULL,\par CvPoint3D64f *eulerAngles=NULL);
+}{CPP}{RQDecomp3x3(matrixM, matrixR, matrixQ, matrixQx = None, matrixQy = None, matrixQz = None) -> eulerAngles}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{matrixM}{The 3x3 input matrix M}
+\cvarg{matrixR}{The output 3x3 upper-triangular matrix R}
+\cvarg{matrixQ}{The output 3x3 orthogonal matrix Q}
+\cvarg{matrixQx}{Optional 3x3 rotation matrix around x-axis}
+\cvarg{matrixQy}{Optional 3x3 rotation matrix around y-axis}
+\cvarg{matrixQz}{Optional 3x3 rotation matrix around z-axis}
+\cvarg{eulerAngles}{Optional 3 points containing the three Euler angles of rotation}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvRQDecomp3x3} computes a RQ decomposition using the given rotations. This function is used in \cross{DecomposeProjectionMatrix} to decompose the left 3x3 submatrix of a projection matrix into a calibration and a rotation matrix.
+
+It optionally returns three rotation matrices, one for each axis, and the three Euler angles that could be used in OpenGL.
+
+
+\cvfunc{DecomposeProjectionMatrix}\label{DecomposeProjectionMatrix}
+
+Computes the `RQ' decomposition of 3x3 matrices.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvDecomposeProjectionMatrix( \par const CvMat *projMatr,\par CvMat *calibMatr,\par CvMat *rotMatr,\par CvMat *posVect,\par CvMat *rotMatrX=NULL,\par CvMat *rotMatrY=NULL,\par CvMat *rotMatrZ=NULL,\par CvPoint3D64f *eulerAngles=NULL);
+}{CPP}{DecomposeProjectionMatrix(projMatr, calibMatr, rotMatr, posVect, rotMatrX = None, rotMatrY = None, rotMatrZ = None) -> eulerAngles}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{projMatr}{The 3x4 input projection matrix P}
+\cvarg{calibMatr}{The output 3x3 internal calibration matrix K}
+\cvarg{rotMatr}{The output 3x3 external rotation matrix R}
+\cvarg{posVect}{The output 4x1 external homogenious position vector C}
+\cvarg{rotMatrX}{Optional 3x3 rotation matrix around x-axis}
+\cvarg{rotMatrY}{Optional 3x3 rotation matrix around y-axis}
+\cvarg{rotMatrZ}{Optional 3x3 rotation matrix around z-axis}
+\cvarg{eulerAngles}{Optional 3 points containing the three Euler angles of rotation}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvDecomposeProjectionMatrix} computes a decomposition of a projection matrix into a calibration and a rotation matrix and the position of the camera.
+
+It optionally returns three rotation matrices, one for each axis, and the three Euler angles that could be used in OpenGL.
+
+
+\subsection{Pose Estimation}
+
+
+\cvfunc{CreatePOSITObject}\label{CreatePOSITObject}
+
+Initializes a structure containing object information.
+
+\cvexp{
+CvPOSITObject* cvCreatePOSITObject( \par CvPoint3D32f* points,\par int point\_count );
+}{CPP}{CreatePOSITObject(points)-> POSITObject}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{points}{Pointer to the points of the 3D object model}
+\cvarg{point\_count}{Number of object points}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvCreatePOSITObject} allocates memory for the object structure and computes the object inverse matrix.
+
+The preprocessed object data is stored in the structure \cross{CvPOSITObject}, internal for OpenCV, which means that the user cannot directly access the structure data. The user may only create this structure and pass its pointer to the function.
+
+An object is defined as a set of points given in a coordinate system. The function \cross{POSIT} computes a vector that begins at a camera-related coordinate system center and ends at the \texttt{points[0]} of the object.
+
+Once the work with a given object is finished, the function \cross{ReleasePOSITObject} must be called to free memory.
+
+\cvfunc{POSIT}\label{POSIT}
+
+Implements the POSIT algorithm.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvPOSIT( \par CvPOSITObject* posit\_object,\par CvPoint2D32f* image\_points,\par double focal\_length,\par CvTermCriteria criteria,\par CvMatr32f rotation\_matrix,\par CvVect32f translation\_vector );
+}{CPP}{POSIT(posit\_object,image\_points,focal\_length,criteria)-> rotation\_matrix,translation\_vector}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{posit\_object}{Pointer to the object structure}
+\cvarg{image\_points}{Pointer to the object points projections on the 2D image plane}
+\cvarg{focal\_length}{Focal length of the camera used}
+\cvarg{criteria}{Termination criteria of the iterative POSIT algorithm}
+\cvarg{rotation\_matrix}{Matrix of rotations}
+\cvarg{translation\_vector}{Translation vector}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvPOSIT} implements the POSIT algorithm. Image coordinates are given in a camera-related coordinate system. The focal length may be retrieved using the camera calibration functions. At every iteration of the algorithm a new perspective projection of the estimated pose is computed.
+
+Difference norm between two projections is the maximal distance between corresponding points. The parameter \texttt{criteria.epsilon} serves to stop the algorithm if the difference is small.
+
+\ifC
+\cvfunc{ReleasePOSITObject}\label{ReleasePOSITObject}
+
+Deallocates a 3D object structure.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvReleasePOSITObject( \par CvPOSITObject** posit\_object );
+}{CPP}{PYTHON}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{posit\_object}{Double pointer to \texttt{CvPOSIT} structure}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvReleasePOSITObject} releases memory previously allocated by the function \cross{CreatePOSITObject}.
+
+\fi
+
+\cvfunc{CalcImageHomography}\label{CalcImageHomography}
+
+Calculates the homography matrix for an oblong planar object (e.g. arm).
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvCalcImageHomography( \par float* line,\par CvPoint3D32f* center,\par float* intrinsic,\par float* homography );
+}{CPP}{CalcImageHomography(line,points)-> intrinsic,homography}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{line}{the main object axis direction (vector (dx,dy,dz))}
+\cvarg{center}{object center ((cx,cy,cz))}
+\cvarg{intrinsic}{intrinsic camera parameters (3x3 matrix)}
+\cvarg{homography}{output homography matrix (3x3)}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvCalcImageHomography} calculates the homography
+matrix for the initial image transformation from image plane to the
+plane, defined by a 3D oblong object line (See \_\_Figure 6-10\_\_
+in the OpenCV Guide 3D Reconstruction Chapter).
+
+
+\subsection{Epipolar Geometry}
+
+\cvfunc{FindFundamentalMat}\label{FindFundamentalMat}
+
+Calculates the fundamental matrix from the corresponding points in two images.
+
+\cvexp{
+int cvFindFundamentalMat( \par const CvMat* points1,\par const CvMat* points2,\par CvMat* fundamental\_matrix,\par int method=CV\_FM\_RANSAC,\par double param1=1.,\par double param2=0.99,\par CvMat* status=NULL);
+}{CPP}{FindFundamentalMat(points1, points2, fundamental\_matrix, method=CV\_FM\_RANSAC, param1=1., double param2=0.99, status = None) -> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{points1}{Array of the first image points of \texttt{2xN, Nx2, 3xN} or \texttt{Nx3} size (where \texttt{N} is number of points). Multi-channel \texttt{1xN} or \texttt{Nx1} array is also acceptable. The point coordinates should be floating-point (single or double precision)}
+\cvarg{points2}{Array of the second image points of the same size and format as \texttt{points1}}
+\cvarg{fundamental\_matrix}{The output fundamental matrix or matrices. The size should be 3x3 or 9x3 (7-point method may return up to 3 matrices)}
+\cvarg{method}{Method for computing the fundamental matrix
+\begin{description}
+ \cvarg{CV\_FM\_7POINT}{for a 7-point algorithm. $N = 7$}
+ \cvarg{CV\_FM\_8POINT}{for an 8-point algorithm. $N \ge 8$}
+ \cvarg{CV\_FM\_RANSAC}{for the RANSAC algorithm. $N \ge 8$}
+ \cvarg{CV\_FM\_LMEDS}{for the LMedS algorithm. $N \ge 8$}
+\end{description}}
+\cvarg{param1}{The parameter is used for RANSAC or LMedS methods only. It is the maximum distance from point to epipolar line in pixels, beyond which the point is considered an outlier and is not used for computing the final fundamental matrix. Usually it is set to 0.5 or 1.0}
+\cvarg{param2}{The parameter is used for RANSAC or LMedS methods only. It denotes the desirable level of confidence that the matrix is correct}
+\cvarg{status}{The optional output array of N elements, every element of which is set to 0 for outliers and to 1 for the other points. The array is computed only in RANSAC and LMedS methods. For other methods it is set to 1}
+\end{description}
+
+The epipolar geometry is described by the following equation:
+
+\[ p_2^T F p1=0 \]
+
+where $F$ is fundamental matrix, $p_1$ and $p_2$ are corresponding points in the first and the second images, respectively.
+
+The function \texttt{cvFindFundamentalMat} calculates the fundamental
+matrix using one of four methods listed above and returns the number
+of fundamental matrices found (1 or 3) and 0, if no matrix is found.
+
+The calculated fundamental matrix may be passed further to
+\texttt{cvComputeCorrespondEpilines} that finds the epipolar lines
+corresponding to the specified points.
+
+\cvfunc{Example. Estimation of fundamental matrix using RANSAC algorithm}
+\begin{lstlisting}
+int point_count = 100;
+CvMat* points1;
+CvMat* points2;
+CvMat* status;
+CvMat* fundamental_matrix;
+
+points1 = cvCreateMat(1,point_count,CV_32FC2);
+points2 = cvCreateMat(1,point_count,CV_32FC2);
+status = cvCreateMat(1,point_count,CV_8UC1);
+
+/* Fill the points here ... */
+for( i = 0; i < point_count; i++ )
+{
+ points1->data.fl[i*2] = <x,,1,i,,>;
+ points1->data.fl[i*2+1] = <y,,1,i,,>;
+ points2->data.fl[i*2] = <x,,2,i,,>;
+ points2->data.fl[i*2+1] = <y,,2,i,,>;
+}
+
+fundamental_matrix = cvCreateMat(3,3,CV_32FC1);
+int fm_count = cvFindFundamentalMat( points1,points2,fundamental_matrix,
+ CV_FM_RANSAC,1.0,0.99,status );
+\end{lstlisting}
+
+\cvfunc{ComputeCorrespondEpilines}\label{ComputeCorrespondEpilines}
+
+For points in one image of a stereo pair, computes the corresponding epilines in the other image.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvComputeCorrespondEpilines( \par const CvMat* points,\par int which\_image,\par const CvMat* fundamental\_matrix,\par CvMat* correspondent\_lines);
+}{CPP}{ComputeCorrespondEpilines(points, which\_image, fundamental\_matrix, correspondent\_lines) -> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{points}{The input points. \texttt{2xN, Nx2, 3xN} or \texttt{Nx3} array (where \texttt{N} number of points). Multi-channel \texttt{1xN} or \texttt{Nx1} array is also acceptable}
+\cvarg{which\_image}{Index of the image (1 or 2) that contains the \texttt{points}}
+\cvarg{fundamental\_matrix}{Fundamental matrix}
+\cvarg{correspondent\_lines}{Computed epilines, a \texttt{3xN} or \texttt{Nx3} array}
+\end{description}
+
+For every point in one of the two images of a stereo-pair the function
+\texttt{ComputeCorrespondEpilines} finds the equation of a line that
+contains the corresponding point (i.e. projection of the same 3D
+point) in the other image. Each line is encoded by a vector of 3
+elements $l = \vecthree{a}{b}{c}$ so that:
+
+\[ l^T \vecthree{x}{y}{1} = 0 \]
+or
+\[ a x + b y + c = 0 \]
+
+From the fundamental matrix definition (see \cross{FindFundamentalMatrix}
+discussion), line $l_1$ for a point $p_1$ in the first image
+$(\texttt{which\_image} =1)$ can be computed as:
+
+\[ l_2 = F p_1 \]
+
+and the line $l_1$ for a point $p_2$ in the second image $(\texttt{which\_image} =1)$ can be computed as:
+
+\[ l_1 = F^T p_2 \]
+
+Line coefficients are defined up to a scale. They are normalized $(a^2+b^2=1)$ are stored into \texttt{correspondent\_lines}.
+
+\cvfunc{ConvertPointsHomogenious}\label{ConvertPointsHomogenious}
+
+Convert points to/from homogenious coordinates.
+
+\cvexp{
+void cvConvertPointsHomogenious( \par const CvMat* src,\par CvMat* dst );
+}{CPP}{PYTHON}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{src}{The input point array, \texttt{2xN, Nx2, 3xN, Nx3, 4xN or Nx4 (where \texttt{N} is the number of points)}. Multi-channel \texttt{1xN} or \texttt{Nx1} array is also acceptable}
+\cvarg{dst}{The output point array, must contain the same number of points as the input; The dimensionality must be the same, 1 less or 1 more than the input, and also within 2 to 4}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvConvertPointsHomogenious} converts 2D or 3D points from/to homogenious coordinates, or simply copies or transposes the array. If the input array dimensionality is larger than the output, each coordinate is divided by the last coordinate:
+
+\[
+\begin{array}{l}
+(x,y[,z],w) -> (x',y'[,z'])\\
+\text{where} \\
+x' = x/w \\
+y' = y/w \\
+z' = z/w \quad \text{(if output is 3D)}
+\end{array}
+\]
+
+If the output array dimensionality is larger, an extra 1 is appended to each point. Otherwise, the input array is simply copied (with optional tranposition) to the output.
+
+\textbf{Note} because the function accepts a large variety of array layouts, it may report an error when input/output array dimensionality is ambiguous. It is always safe to use the function with number of points $\texttt{N} \ge 5$, or to use multi-channel \texttt{Nx1} or \texttt{1xN} arrays.
+
+\cvfunc{CvStereoBMState}
+
+The structure for block matching stereo correspondence algorithm.
+
+\begin{lstlisting}
+typedef struct CvStereoBMState
+{
+ //pre filters (normalize input images):
+ int preFilterType; // 0 for now
+ int preFilterSize; // ~5x5..21x21
+ int preFilterCap; // up to ~31
+ //correspondence using Sum of Absolute Difference (SAD):
+ int SADWindowSize; // Could be 5x5..21x21
+ int minDisparity; // minimum disparity (=0)
+ int numberOfDisparities; // maximum disparity - minimum disparity
+ //post filters (knock out bad matches):
+ int textureThreshold; // areas with no texture are ignored
+ float uniquenessRatio;// filter out pixels if there are other close matches
+ // with different disparity
+ int speckleWindowSize;// Disparity variation window (not used)
+ int speckleRange; // Acceptable range of variation in window (not used)
+ // internal buffers, do not modify (!)
+ CvMat* preFilteredImg0;
+ CvMat* preFilteredImg1;
+ CvMat* slidingSumBuf;
+}
+CvStereoBMState;
+\end{lstlisting}
+
+The block matching stereo correspondence algorithm, by Kurt Konolige, is very fast one-pass stereo matching algorithm that uses sliding sums of absolute differences between pixels in the left image and the pixels in the right image, shifted by some varying amount of pixels (from \texttt{minDisparity} to \texttt{minDisparity+numberOfDisparities}). On a pair of images WxH the algorithm computes disparity in \texttt{O(W*H*numberOfDisparities)} time. In order to improve quality and reability of the disparity map, the algorithm includes pre-filtering and post-filtering procedures.
+
+Note that the algorithm searches for the corresponding blocks in x direction only. It means that the supplied stereo pair should be rectified. Vertical stereo layout is not directly supported, but in such a case the images could be transposed by user.
+
+\cvfunc{CreateStereoBMState}
+
+Creates block matching stereo correspondence structure.
+
+\begin{lstlisting}
+#define CV_STEREO_BM_BASIC 0
+#define CV_STEREO_BM_FISH_EYE 1
+#define CV_STEREO_BM_NARROW 2
+\end{lstlisting}
+
+\cvexp{
+
+CvStereoBMState* cvCreateStereoBMState( int preset=CV\_STEREO\_BM\_BASIC,
+ int numberOfDisparities=0 );
+
+}{CPP}{CreateStereoBMState(preset=CV\_STEREO\_BM\_BASIC,numberOfDisparities=0)-> StereoBMState}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{preset}{ID of one of the pre-defined parameter sets. Any of the parameters can be overridden after creating the structure.}
+\cvarg{numberOfDisparities}{The number of disparities. If the parameter is 0, it is taken from the preset, otherwise the supplied value overrides the one from preset.}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvCreateStereoBMState} creates the stereo correspondence structure and initializes it. It is possible to override any of the parameters at any time between the calls to \cross{cvFindStereoCorrespondenceBM}.
+
+\cvfunc{ReleaseStereoBMState}
+
+Releases block matching stereo correspondence structure.
+
+\cvexp{
+
+void cvReleaseStereoBMState( CvStereoBMState** state );
+
+}{CPP}{ReleaseStereoBMState(state)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{state}{Double pointer to the released structure.}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvReleaseStereoBMState} releases the stereo correspondence structure and all the associated internal buffers.
+
+\cvfunc{FindStereoCorrespondenceBM}
+
+Computes the disparity map using block matching algorithm.
+
+\cvexp{
+
+void cvFindStereoCorrespondenceBM( \par const CvArr* left, \par const CvArr* right,
+ \par CvArr* disparity, \par CvStereoBMState* state );
+
+}{CPP}{FindStereoCorrespondenceBM(left,right,disparity,state)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{left}{The left single-channel, 8-bit image.}
+\cvarg{right}{The right image of the same size and the same type.}
+\cvarg{disparity}{The output single-channel 16-bit signed disparity map of the same size as input images. Its elements will be the computed disparities, multiplied by 16 and rounded to integers.}
+\cvarg{state}{Stereo correspondence structure.}
+\end{description}
+
+The function cvFindStereoCorrespondenceBM computes disparity map for the input rectified stereo pair.
+
+\cvfunc{CvStereoGCState}
+
+The structure for graph cuts-based stereo correspondence algorithm
+
+\begin{lstlisting}
+typedef struct CvStereoGCState
+{
+ int Ithreshold; // threshold for piece-wise linear data cost function (5 by default)
+ int interactionRadius; // radius for smoothness cost function (1 by default; means Potts model)
+ float K, lambda, lambda1, lambda2; // parameters for the cost function
+ // (usually computed adaptively from the input data)
+ int occlusionCost; // 10000 by default
+ int minDisparity; // 0 by default; see CvStereoBMState
+ int numberOfDisparities; // defined by user; see CvStereoBMState
+ int maxIters; // number of iterations; defined by user.
+
+ // internal buffers
+ CvMat* left;
+ CvMat* right;
+ CvMat* dispLeft;
+ CvMat* dispRight;
+ CvMat* ptrLeft;
+ CvMat* ptrRight;
+ CvMat* vtxBuf;
+ CvMat* edgeBuf;
+}
+CvStereoGCState;
+\end{lstlisting}
+
+The graph cuts stereo correspondence algorithm, described in \href{\#Kolmogrov03}{[Kolmogorov03]} (as \textbf{KZ1}), is non-realtime stereo correpsondence algorithm that usually gives very accurate depth map with well-defined object boundaries. The algorithm represents stereo problem as a sequence of binary optimization problems, each of those is solved using maximum graph flow algorithm. The state structure above should not be allocated and initialized manually; instead, use \cross{cvCreateStereoGCState} and then override necessary parameters if needed.
+
+\cvfunc{CreateStereoGCState}
+
+Creates the state of graph cut-based stereo correspondence algorithm.
+
+\cvexp{
+
+CvStereoGCState* cvCreateStereoGCState( int numberOfDisparities,
+ int maxIters );
+
+}{CPP}{CreateStereoGCState(numberOfDispaities,maxIters)-> StereoGCState}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{numberOfDisparities}{The number of disparities. The disparity search range will be $\texttt{state->minDisparity} \le disparity < \texttt{state->minDisparity} + \texttt{state->numberOfDisparities}$}
+\cvarg{maxIters}{Maximum number of iterations. On each iteration all possible (or reasonable) alpha-expansions are tried. The algorithm may terminate earlier if it could not find an alpha-expansion that decreases the overall cost function value. See \href{\#Kolmogorov03}{[Kolmogorov03]} for details. }
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvCreateStereoGCState} creates the stereo correspondence structure and initializes it. It is possible to override any of the parameters at any time between the calls to \cross{cvFindStereoCorrespondenceGC}.
+
+\cvfunc{ReleaseStereoGCState}
+
+Releases the state structure of the graph cut-based stereo correspondence algorithm.
+
+\cvexp{
+
+void cvReleaseStereoGCState( CvStereoGCState** state );
+
+}{CPP}{ReleaseStereoGCState(state)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{state}{Double pointer to the released structure.}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvReleaseStereoGCState} releases the stereo correspondence structure and all the associated internal buffers.
+
+
+\cvfunc{FindStereoCorrespondenceGC}
+
+Computes the disparity map using graph cut-based algorithm.
+
+\cvexp{
+
+void cvFindStereoCorrespondenceGC( \par const CvArr* left, \par const CvArr* right,
+ \par CvArr* dispLeft, \par CvArr* dispRight,
+ \par CvStereoGCState* state,
+ \par int useDisparityGuess = CV\_DEFAULT(0) );
+
+}{CPP}{FindStereoCorrespondenceGC(\par left,\par right,\par dispLeft,\par dispRight,\par state,\par useDisparityGuess=CV\_DEFAULT(0))-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{left}{The left single-channel, 8-bit image.}
+\cvarg{right}{The right image of the same size and the same type.}
+\cvarg{dispLeft}{The optional output single-channel 16-bit signed left disparity map of the same size as input images.}
+\cvarg{dispRight}{The optional output single-channel 16-bit signed right disparity map of the same size as input images.}
+\cvarg{state}{Stereo correspondence structure.}
+\cvarg{useDisparityGuess}{If the parameter is not zero, the algorithm will start with pre-defined disparity maps. Both dispLeft and dispRight should be valid disparity maps. Otherwise, the function starts with blank disparity maps (all pixels are marked as occlusions).}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvFindStereoCorrespondenceGC} computes disparity maps for the input rectified stereo pair. Note that the left disparity image will contain values in the following range:
+
+\[
+-\texttt{state->numberOfDisparities}-\texttt{state->minDisparity}
+< dispLeft(x,y) \le -\texttt{state->minDisparity},
+\]
+
+or
+\[
+dispLeft(x,y) == \texttt{CV\_STEREO\_GC\_OCCLUSION}
+\]
+
+and for the right disparity image the following will be true:
+
+\[
+\texttt{state->minDisparity} \le dispRight(x,y)
+< \texttt{state->minDisparity} + \texttt{state->numberOfDisparities}
+\]
+
+or
+
+\[
+dispRight(x,y) == \texttt{CV\_STEREO\_GC\_OCCLUSION}
+\]
+
+that is, the range for the left disparity image will be inversed,
+and the pixels for which no good match has been found, will be marked
+as occlusions.
+
+Here is how the function can be called:
+
+\begin{lstlisting}
+// image_left and image_right are the input 8-bit single-channel images
+// from the left and the right cameras, respectively
+CvSize size = cvGetSize(image_left);
+CvMat* disparity_left = cvCreateMat( size.height, size.width, CV_16S );
+CvMat* disparity_right = cvCreateMat( size.height, size.width, CV_16S );
+CvStereoGCState* state = cvCreateStereoGCState( 16, 2 );
+cvFindStereoCorrespondenceGC( image_left, image_right,
+ disparity_left, disparity_right, state, 0 );
+cvReleaseStereoGCState( &state );
+// now process the computed disparity images as you want ...
+\end{lstlisting}
+
+and this is the output left disparity image computed from the well-known Tsukuba stereo pair and multiplied by -16 (because the values in the left disparity images are usually negative):
+
+\begin{lstlisting}
+CvMat* disparity_left_visual = cvCreateMat( size.height, size.width, CV_8U );
+cvConvertScale( disparity_left, disparity_left_visual, -16 );
+cvSave( "disparity.png", disparity_left_visual );
+\end{lstlisting}
+
+\includegraphics{pics/disparity.png}
+
+\cvfunc{ReprojectImageTo3D}
+
+Reprojects disparity image to 3D space.
+
+\cvexp{
+
+void cvReprojectImageTo3D( const CvArr* disparity,
+ CvArr* \_3dImage, const CvMat* Q );
+
+}{CPP}{ReprojectImageTo3D(disparity,\_3dImage,Q)-> None}
+
+\begin{description}
+\cvarg{disparity}{Disparity map.}
+\cvarg{\_3dImage}{3-channel, 16-bit integer or 32-bit floating-point image - the output map of 3D points.}
+\cvarg{Q}{The reprojection 4x4 matrix.}
+\end{description}
+
+The function \texttt{cvReprojectImageTo3D} transforms 1-channel disparity map to 3-channel image, a 3D surface. That is, for each pixel \texttt{(x,y)} and the corresponding disparity d=disparity\texttt{(x,y)} it computes:
+
+$[X Y Z W]^T = Q*[x y d 1]^T
+\newline
+\_3dImage(x,y) = (X/W, Y/W, Z/W)$
+
+The matrix Q can be arbitrary, e.g. the one, computed by \cross{cvStereoRectify}. To reproject a sparse set of points {(x,y,d),...} to 3D space, use \cross{cvPerspectiveTransform}.
+
+\section{Bibliography}
+\begin{verbatim}
+This bibliography provides a list of publications that were might be useful to the OpenCV users. This list is not complete; it serves only as a starting point.
+
+ 1. '''[Borgefors86]''' Gunilla Borgefors, "Distance Transformations in Digital Images". Computer Vision, Graphics and Image Processing 34, 344-371 (1986).
+ 1. '''[Bouguet00]''' Jean-Yves Bouguet. Pyramidal Implementation of the Lucas Kanade Feature Tracker.<<BR>> The paper is included into OpenCV distribution ([[attachment:algo\_tracking.pdf]])
+ 1. '''[Bradski98]''' G.R. Bradski. Computer vision face tracking as a component of a perceptual user interface. In Workshop on Applications of Computer Vision, pages 214?219, Princeton, NJ, Oct. 1998.<<BR>> Updated version can be found at http://www.intel.com/technology/itj/q21998/articles/art\_2.htm.<<BR>> Also, it is included into OpenCV distribution ([[attachment:camshift.pdf]])
+ 1. '''[Bradski00]''' G. Bradski and J. Davis. Motion Segmentation and Pose Recognition with Motion History Gradients. IEEE WACV'00, 2000.
+ 1. '''[Burt81]''' P. J. Burt, T. H. Hong, A. Rosenfeld. Segmentation and Estimation of Image Region Properties Through Cooperative Hierarchical Computation. IEEE Tran. On SMC, Vol. 11, N.12, 1981, pp. 802-809.
+ 1. '''[Canny86]''' J. Canny. A Computational Approach to Edge Detection, IEEE Trans. on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, 8(6), pp. 679-698 (1986).
+ 1. '''[Davis97]''' J. Davis and Bobick. The Representation and Recognition of Action Using Temporal Templates. MIT Media Lab Technical Report 402, 1997.
+ 1. '''[DeMenthon92]''' Daniel F. DeMenthon and Larry S. Davis. Model-Based Object Pose in 25 Lines of Code. In Proceedings of ECCV '92, pp. 335-343, 1992.
+ 1. '''[Fitzgibbon95]''' Andrew W. Fitzgibbon, R.B.Fisher. A Buyer?s Guide to Conic Fitting. Proc.5th British Machine Vision Conference, Birmingham, pp. 513-522, 1995.
+ 1. '''[Ford98]''' Adrian Ford, Alan Roberts. Colour Space Conversions. http://www.poynton.com/PDFs/coloureq.pdf
+ 1. '''[Horn81]''' Berthold K.P. Horn and Brian G. Schunck. Determining Optical Flow. Artificial Intelligence, 17, pp. 185-203, 1981.
+ 1. '''[Hu62]''' M. Hu. Visual Pattern Recognition by Moment Invariants, IRE Transactions on Information Theory, 8:2, pp. 179-187, 1962.
+ 1. '''[Iivarinen97]''' Jukka Iivarinen, Markus Peura, Jaakko Srel, and Ari Visa. Comparison of Combined Shape Descriptors for Irregular Objects, 8th British Machine Vision Conference, BMVC'97.<<BR>>http://www.cis.hut.fi/research/IA/paper/publications/bmvc97/bmvc97.html
+ 1. '''[Jahne97]''' B. Jahne. Digital Image Processing. Springer, New York, 1997.
+ 1. '''[Lucas81]''' Lucas, B., and Kanade, T. An Iterative Image Registration Technique with an Application to Stereo Vision, Proc. of 7th International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI), pp. 674-679.
+ 1. '''[Kass88]''' M. Kass, A. Witkin, and D. Terzopoulos. Snakes: Active Contour Models, International Journal of Computer Vision, pp. 321-331, 1988.
+ 1. '''[Lienhart02]''' Rainer Lienhart and Jochen Maydt. An Extended Set of Haar-like Features for Rapid Object Detection. IEEE ICIP 2002, Vol. 1, pp. 900-903, Sep. 2002.<<BR>> This paper, as well as the extended technical report, can be retrieved at http://www.lienhart.de/Publications/publications.html
+ 1. '''[Matas98]''' J.Matas, C.Galambos, J.Kittler. Progressive Probabilistic Hough Transform. British Machine Vision Conference, 1998.
+ 1. '''[Rosenfeld73]''' A. Rosenfeld and E. Johnston. Angle Detection on Digital Curves. IEEE Trans. Computers, 22:875-878, 1973.
+ 1. '''[RubnerJan98]''' Y. Rubner. C. Tomasi, L.J. Guibas. Metrics for Distributions with Applications to Image Databases. Proceedings of the 1998 IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision, Bombay, India, January 1998, pp. 59-66.
+ 1. '''[RubnerSept98]''' Y. Rubner. C. Tomasi, L.J. Guibas. The Earth Mover?s Distance as a Metric for Image Retrieval. Technical Report STAN-CS-TN-98-86, Department of Computer Science, Stanford University, September 1998.
+ 1. '''[RubnerOct98]''' Y. Rubner. C. Tomasi. Texture Metrics. Proceeding of the IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, San-Diego, CA, October 1998, pp. 4601-4607. http://robotics.stanford.edu/~rubner/publications.html
+ 1. '''[Serra82]''' J. Serra. Image Analysis and Mathematical Morphology. Academic Press, 1982.
+ 1. '''[Schiele00]''' Bernt Schiele and James L. Crowley. Recognition without Correspondence Using Multidimensional Receptive Field Histograms. In International Journal of Computer Vision 36 (1), pp. 31-50, January 2000.
+ 1. '''[Suzuki85]''' S. Suzuki, K. Abe. Topological Structural Analysis of Digital Binary Images by Border Following. CVGIP, v.30, n.1. 1985, pp. 32-46.
+ 1. '''[Teh89]''' C.H. Teh, R.T. Chin. On the Detection of Dominant Points on Digital Curves. - IEEE Tr. PAMI, 1989, v.11, No.8, p. 859-872.
+ 1. '''[Trucco98]''' Emanuele Trucco, Alessandro Verri. Introductory Techniques for 3-D Computer Vision. Prentice Hall, Inc., 1998.
+ 1. '''[Viola01]''' Paul Viola and Michael J. Jones. Rapid Object Detection using a Boosted Cascade of Simple Features. IEEE CVPR, 2001.<<BR>> The paper is available online at http://www.ai.mit.edu/people/viola/
+ 1. '''[Welch95]''' Greg Welch, Gary Bishop. An Introduction To the Kalman Filter. Technical Report TR95-041, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 1995.<<BR>> Online version is available at http://www.cs.unc.edu/~welch/kalman/kalmanIntro.html
+ 1. '''[Williams92]''' D. J. Williams and M. Shah. A Fast Algorithm for Active Contours and Curvature Estimation. CVGIP: Image Understanding, Vol. 55, No. 1, pp. 14-26, Jan., 1992. http://www.cs.ucf.edu/~vision/papers/shah/92/WIS92A.pdf.
+ 1. '''[Yuen03]''' H.K. Yuen, J. Princen, J. Illingworth and J. Kittler. Comparative study of Hough Transform methods for circle finding.<<BR>>http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6V09-48TCV4N-5Y/2/91f551d124777f7a4cf7b18325235673
+ 1. '''[Yuille89]''' A.Y.Yuille, D.S.Cohen, and P.W.Hallinan. Feature Extraction from Faces Using Deformable Templates in CVPR, pp. 104-109, 1989.
+ 1. '''[Zhang96]''' Z. Zhang. Parameter Estimation Techniques: A Tutorial with Application to Conic Fitting, Image and Vision Computing Journal, 1996.
+ 1. '''[Zhang99]''' Z. Zhang. Flexible Camera Calibration By Viewing a Plane From Unknown Orientations. International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV'99), Corfu, Greece, pages 666-673, September 1999.
+ 1. '''[Zhang00]''' Z. Zhang. A Flexible New Technique for Camera Calibration. IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, 22(11):1330-1334, 2000.
+\end{verbatim}
projects / opencv / blobdiff